Month: May 2024

SECTION 1
Read the text below and answer Questions 1-7.

Visitor attractions in southern England

A Blackthorn Castle
This famous, historically accurate, reconstructed castle and village enables visitors to travel back in time. Explore the grounds and experience the atmosphere of an ancient lifestyle. In the fields you can see the type of sheep that the original inhabitants of the castle probably kept. Homemade snacks are on sale.

B Withney Wetland Centre
Visitors will enjoy a visit to Withney whatever the season. In winter, for example, they can watch from the centrally heated observatory as thousands of swans feed on the water. Trained wardens give informative talks or lead guided walks round the site. The visitors’ centre may also be hired for private or corporate events.

C Headley Hall
Headley Hall is a large seventeenth-century country house, preserved as it was when it was built. Take time to admire the various works of art displayed, and visit the huge kitchen complete with period equipment – demonstrations are given at weekends. In the park there is space for the younger visitors to run around, and picnic tables are available.

D Lewis House
Lewis House is the birthplace of Frank Lewis, a renowned painter of the eighteenth century. More of his works are on display here than anywhere else in the world. Visitors can see Lewis’s studio and some of the articles he used on a daily basis.

E Canford Wildlife Centre
At Canford we have a new walk-through exhibit called Island Magic. Here visitors can observe many species from the tropical island of Madagascar and read about some of the urgent conservation projects that are taking place there to save endangered species from extinction

F Oakwell Museum
This is an ideal venue for families. They can visit the childhood gallery with its large playroom, and listen to stories told by actors dressed in the costumes of a hundred years ago. They can also enjoy the popular games and wooden animals of that period

Questions 1-7
Look at the six visitor attractions in southern England, A—F, in above passage
For which visitor attraction am the following statements true?
Write the correct letter, A—F, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

1. Visitors can look at animals from another part of the world.
2. People can hold a business conference in this place.
3. Visitors can find out what toys were used in the last century.
4. Activities are available all year round here.
5. You can buy light meals here.
6. Visitors can see how food was prepared in the past.
7. You can visit modem imitations of old buildings here.

Read the text below and answer Questions 8-14.

Paragliding in Australia

What is paragliding?
Paragliding is a kind of flying, but instead of the wing being made of metal, wood or plastic, it is made of nylon or polyester. The wing (known as a canopy) is attached to a harness by lines, not dissimilar to a parachute. The harness is where the pilots sit —and they report that it outperforms a parachute in terms of comfort.

Is it safe?
Like sailing and deep-sea diving, paragliding is as safe as the person doing it. The big advantage is that it’s probably the slowest form of aviation, so if you do crash you’ll hit the ground quite gently!

Where do I learn?
There are lots of schools, mainly based inland by appropriate hills or mountains, and there are also schools on the coast near spectacular cliffs. These are very attractive, though the prospect of landing in the sea seems to dissuade beginners! All schools will show you within a couple of days how to inflate the canopy, launch and land. They use radio instruction, tandem flying practice and schoolroom theory sessions to help you get the most from paragliding. It takes about seven days to get your basic license; then you’re free to fly independently at sites across Australia.

What do I need?
Pilots normally wear warm clothes, in case they get very high up, and a helmet in case they stumble on landing. In terms of gear, schools supply basic training, canopies, harnesses, etc. However, you’ll probably want to buy your own more sophisticated equipment, which you’ll be able to choose much better once you’ve tried some out on your course.

Who can do it?
There’s no upper age limit provided your instructor deems you capable, but the youngest anybody can paraglide is 14. Anybody with good eyesight and good balance is a potential paraglider pilot. It’s a very relaxed sport as you’re mostly sitting down. You’ll probably experience pain in some muscles you didn’t know you had whilst learning, but many of those will be due to the walk up the training hill to launch. Flying a paraglider is a great sport. We hope to see you in the air with us this season!

Questions 8-14
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text on page 88?
In boxes 8-14 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                         if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                       if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN            if there is no information on this

8. A paraglider is more comfortable than a parachute.
9. Most paragliding schools are situated by the sea.
10. Learners must pass a theory test in order to get their license.
11. Learners are able to paraglide unaccompanied after a week’s course.
12. It is advisable to purchase some equipment before you do your training.
13. Fit people of any age can take up paragliding.
14. The preliminary uphill walk may strain some of your muscle.

SECTION 2 
Read the text below and answer Questions 15-21.

How to prepare for an interview

Why prepare?
There are three main reasons.
One: Although you can’t guess every question you might be asked, if you are prepared you can tailor your answers to fit.
Two: If you’re well prepared, you will have more confidence and this will affect the way you come across.
Three: Attitude matters. Prospective employers will choose a not-quite-perfect but willing candidate over a brilliant one who obviously isn’t bothered.

What to prepare?
Find out about the organisation
• Visit the website and read any materials that you have been sent. If nothing has been sent. phone the company to ask for any reading matter they may have.
• Talk to anyone you know who works there already.

Find out about the job
• Ask for a job description or specification. This will tell you the duties that go with the job.
• Talk to anyone you know who is familiar with the work you may be doing.

Find out what the employer is looking for
• Make a list of the skills specified in the job advertisement.
• Think of examples to back up claims that you have these skills.
You can then answer most of the questions that will come up, such as ‘Tell me more about how you work in a team’.
Add in a few ‘lessons learned’ — what you did and how you might have done it better. You can also outline any voluntary work you have done for a charity, or any experience of paid work in an unrelated sector.

Preparing for other kinds of questions
Interviewers are also looking for someone who is likely to stay with the organisation and progress within it. Prepare to answer questions about your ambitions for the future.
You may also be asked to account for gaps in your career history, if you have any. Be positive and accentuate the learning or experience you gained during these periods.
Preparing your own questions
• Do ask technical questions about software, systems and structures and how things are done.
• Do ask about possibilities for training.
• Don’t ask about salary unless you have been offered the job.
When you’ve prepared as much as this, you’ve got a good chance of success.
Good luck!

Questions 15-21
Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 15-21 on your answer sheet.

15. By preparing for your interview, you will gain……….which will help you present yourself well.
16. Read through any documents you have received about the company and also go to their…………
17. Check the job description to find out what………..are involved in the post you have applied for.
18. Interviewers may be interested to hear about any unpaid help you have given to a………………..
19. Be ready to talk about your……………. for the development of your career.
20. Explain any………… that there are in your work record and clarify how you used the time to improve your skills.
21. Questions about………… should be delayed until a later stage.

Read the text below and answer Questions 22-27.

Setting up your own business

Here are some ideas about how you should start:

Know your market
So you know what you want to sell — the most important thing is that it should be something that people want to buy. Start by thinking about who your target customers are. Arc they people who live locally? Are they a particular group of people?

Now look at your competitors. What is different about what you will be doing and how will you persuade people to come to you instead of going to someone who is already established?

How will you reach the customers?
Will you promote your product by phoning people, or visiting local traders, or advertising in magazines or online? Will your delivery system be direct or through shops?

How will your business work?
Now think about what your business needs to succeed. Do you need to look for premises or can you work from home? Do you need to invest in manufacturing equipment to start with?
Is the business something that you can do on your own, or if you get more work will you be looking to recruit staff? If so, what skills would they need?
Whether you’re a sole operator or are looking to recruit a team, effective management is essential.
The law regulates how companies are run and you need to set aside the time to ace that this is done properly, in relation to issues like accounting, insurance and tax.

The money!
As you are working out the prices for your products, you need to make sure you build in all your costs. Remember you will probably need help from an accountant at least once a year, so build that in too, and do a forecast of how much money you think will flow in and out of the business. Look at what you expect to happen over the next three years — and work out what you need to do to break even, as well as the turnover that you hope to achieve to give you a profit. If you think you will need to find some funding to help get the business off the ground, how much will you need and who will you approach to get it?

Your business plan
Now write it all up and call it a business plan

Questions 22-27
Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 22-27 on your answer sheet.

Step 1:
Decide who you are going to sell to and compare yourself with the (22)………… you are going to have.
Step 2:
Consider how you will market your product and your method of (23)…………
Step 3:
Decide if you will have to find (24) ………………… to work in, or buy equipment.
Step 4:
Think whether you will need to take on staff as your business grows.
Step 5:
Make sure you deal with the accounts and other essentials in accordance with the (25)………………….
Step 6:
Calculate all the (26)……………… involved in your business when deciding how much to charge.
Step 7:
Calculate the turnover you are aiming for in order to make a profit in the first three years.
Step 8:
Consider if you require any (27)……………….. to start your business, and where to find it.

SECTION 3
Questions 28-33
The text on pages 95 and 96 has six sections, A—F.
Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i—ix, in boxes 28-33 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings
i The need for population reduction
ii The problem with being a fussy eater
iii Reproductive patterns
iv The need for further research
v A possible solution to falling numbers
vi The fastest runners
vii A rather lonely beginning
viii A comparison between past and present survival rates
ix Useful physical features

28 Paragraph A
29 Paragraph B
30 Paragraph C
31 Paragraph D
32 Paragraph E
33 Paragraph F

Understanding hares

With its wild stare, swift speed and secretive nature, the UK’s brown hare is the rabbit’s mysterious cousin. Even in these days of agricultural intensification, the hare is still to be seen in open countryside, but its numbers are falling.

A Like many herbivores, brown hares spend a relatively large amount of their time feeding. They prefer to do this in the dark, but when nights are short, their activities do spill into daylight hours. Wherever they live, hares appear to have a fondness for fields with a variety of vegetation, for example short as well as longer clumps of grasses. Studies have demonstrated that they benefit from uncultivated land and other unploughed areas on farms, such as field margins. Therefore, if farmers provided patches of woodland in areas of pasture as well as assorted crops in arable areas, there would be year-round shelter and food, and this could be the key to turning round the current decline in hare populations.

B Brown hares have a number of physical adaptations that enable them to survive in open countryside. They have exceptionally large ears that move independently, so that a range of sounds can be pinpointed accurately. Positioned high up on their heads, the hares’ large golden eyes give them 360° vision, making it hard to take a hare by surprise. Compared to mammals of a similar size, hares have a greatly enlarged heart and a higher volume of blood in their bodies, and this allows for superior speed and stamina. In addition, their legs are longer than those of a rabbit, enabling hares to run more like a dog and reach speeds of up to 70 kph.

C Brown hares have unusual lifestyles for their large size, breeding from a young age and producing many leverets (babies). There are about three litters of up to four leverets every year. Both males and females are able to breed at about seven months old, but they have to be quick because they seldom live for more than two years. The breeding season runs from January to October, and by late February most females are pregnant or giving birth to their first litter of the year. So it seems strange, therefore, that it is in March, when the breeding season is already underway, that hares seemingly go mad: boxing, dancing, running and fighting. This has given rise to the age-old reference to ‘mad March hares’. In fact, boxing occurs throughout the breeding season, but people tend to see this behaviour more often in March. This is because in the succeeding months, dusk – the time when hares are most active – is later, when fewer people are about. Crops and vegetation are also taller, hiding the hares from view. Though it is often thought that they are males fighting over females, boxing hares are usually females fighting off males. Hares are mostly solitary, but a female fights off a series of males until she is ready to mate. This occurs several times through the breeding season because, as soon as the female has given birth, she will be ready to mate again.

D But how can females manage to do this while simultaneously feeding themselves and rearing their young? The reason is that hares have evolved such self-sufficient young. Unlike baby rabbits, leverets are born furry and mobile. They weigh about 100 g at birth and are immediately left to their own devices by their mothers. A few days later, the members of the litter creep away to create their own individual resting places, known as ‘forms’. Incredibly, their mother visits them only once every 24 hours and, even then, she only suckles them for a maximum of five minutes each. This lack of family contact may seem harsh to us, but it is a strategy that draws less attention from predators. At the tender age of two weeks, leverets start to feed themselves, while still drinking their mother’s milk. They grow swiftly and are fully weaned at four weeks, reaching adult weight at about six months.

E Research has shown that hares’ milk is extremely rich and fatty, so a little goes a long way. In order to produce such nutritious milk, females need a high-quality, high-calorie diet. Hares are selective feeders at the best of times: unlike many herbivores, they can’t sit around waiting to digest low-quality food — they need high-energy herbs and other leaves in order to sprint. This causes them problems when faced with the smallest alterations in food availability and abundance. So, as well as reductions in the diversity of farmland habitat, the decline in the range of food plants is injurious to hares.

F The rapid turnaround in the breeding cycle suggests that hares should, in principle, be able to increase their populations quickly to exploit new habitats. They certainly used to: studies show that hares evolved on the open plains and spread rapidly westward from the Black Sea after the last ice age (though they were probably introduced to Britain as a species to be hunted for the pot by the Romans). But today’s hares are thwarted by the lack of rich farmland habitat. When the delicate herbs and other plants they rely on are ploughed up or poisoned by herbicides, these wonderful, agile runners disappear too, taking with them some of the wildness from our lives.

Questions 34-36
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in boxes 34-36 on your answer sheet.

34 According to the writer, what is the ideal habitat for hares?
A open grassland which they can run across
B densely wooded areas to breed in
C areas which include a range of vegetation
D land that has been farmed intensively for years

35 When leverets are living alone they are not visited often by their mother because
A this helps to protect them from being eaten by other animals.
B the ‘forms’ are so far apart.
C they are very energetic from a surprisingly early age.
D they know how to find their own food from birth.

36 What does the writer suggest about the adult hares’ diet?
A They need some plants with a high fat content.
B They need time to digest the plants that they eat.
C It is difficult for them to adapt to changes in vegetation.
D It is vital for them to have a supply of one particular herb.

Questions 37-40
Complete the summary below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.

Brown hares
The brown hare is well known for its ability to run fast, at speeds of up to 70 kph, largely due to the length of its legs as well as the unusual size of its heart. An increased amount of blood also gives it the necessary 37………………… to continue running fast for some time. A running hare resembles the 38………………… more closely than its relative, the rabbit.
The hare has some other characteristics that help it to avoid capture. The first is its excellent all-round 39…………………… This means that predators cannot easily creep up behind it. Another feature is its ability to position its massive 40…………… separately, to sense the slightest indication of danger.

SECTION 1
Read the text below and answer Questions 1-6.

Summer activities at London’s Kew Gardens

A Climb up to the walkway among the trees, 18 metres above the ground, for a spectacular experience. Feel as tall as the trees and enjoy a bird’s-eye view over the gardens.

B The Nash Conservatory displays stunning images from leading wildlife photographer Heather Angel. Each photograph explores the wealth of biodiversity at Kew Gardens, from foxes to birds, tiny insects to towering trees.

C A world of pollination comes to life in the Princess of Wales Conservatory. Find yourself in a tropical environment whilst walking through clouds of colourful butterflies as they fly around the Conservatory! Come face-to-face with gigantic sculptures of insects, birds and bats, which will help tell the fascinating stories of how they interact with plants.

D An extraordinary sound installation created by Chris Watson. On the hour throughout the day, the Palm House is filled with the sound of the dawn and dusk choruses of birds that live in the Central and South American rainforests.

E Come and see the fantastic outdoor exhibition of garden, wildlife and botanical photography. Walk amongst enlarged photographs and admire the wonderful garden photos – all taken by children aged 16 and under from all round the country. If you are in this age category and fancy yourself as a photographer, then you can enter for the next show!

F Young explorers can discover the new children’s outdoor play area, shaped like a plant, in Kew’s magical Conservation Area. As you journey through this interactive landscape, discover the functions of every part of a plant. Tunnel through giant roots, get lost among the leaves and hide amongst the large fungi, whilst solving puzzles along the way!

G What is biodiversity all about? Did you know that every breath we take and every move we make depends on plants? Take a guided tour to discover what biodiversity means and why it matters so much.

H Visit our exciting and colourful exhibition of South American botanical paintings, which brings the continent’s exotic and lush plants to life in works from two hundred years ago and from this century.

Questions 1-6
The text on page 63 has eight sections, A-H. Which sections contain the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.

1. learning what all the different sections of a plant do
2. seeing art showing plants from a different part of the world
3. the possibility of having your work exhibited
4. learning about why human beings need plants
5. something that happens daily at the same times
6. learning about the relationship between various creatures, insects and plants

Read the text below and answer Questions 7-14.

City Park and Ride

We have six purpose-built Park and Ride sites serving the city, more than almost anywhere else in the UK. Established for over 40 years, they provide around 5,000 parking spaces for cars. The sires are located on the main routes into the city centre. More than 3,000,000 passengers a year take a bus from a Park and Ride site into the city, reducing congestion and helping to improve the air quality in the city centre.

Parking at the sites is available only for those travelling from the site on a Park and Ride or other scheduled bus service, and is free. No overnight parking is permitted. Heavy goods vehicles are not permitted at the Park and Ride site at any time.

It’s simple to use. Just park your car and buy your but ticket from the bus driver, with the correct money if possible. An individual adult daily return purchased prior to 12:30 hrs for use that day costs £2.40. If purchased after 12:30 hrs it costs £2.10.

Up to four children under 16 travel free with an adult or concessionary pass holder. The return fare for unaccompanied children under 16 is £1.10.

Cycle and Ride for just £1.10 a day. Just park your cycle, motorcycle or scooter in the allocated space, and buy your ticket from the site office. You may be asked to provide evidence that you have travelled to the Park and Ride site by cycle, motorcycle or scooter.

Return tickets for concessionary bus pass holders cost El after 09:30 Monday to Friday and any time at weekend or bank holidays (when open). At other times there is no reduction for holders of concessionary, bus passes.

Questions 7-14
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text on page 65?
In boxes 7-14 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                       if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                     if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN         if there is no information on this

7. This was one of the first UK cities to introduce a Park and Ride scheme.
8. The amount of congestion in the city centre has fallen.
9. There is a special section of the car park for heavy goods vehicles.
10. Bus drivers do not give change so you must have the correct money for a ticket.
11. Ticket prices vary depending on the time of day.
12. Children under 16 travelling alone are allowed free travel.
13. The space for cycles, motorcycles and scooters is close to the site office.
14. People with concessionary bus passes must pay the full fare to travel at certain times.

SECTION 2
Read the text below and answer Questions 15-20.

HOW TO ORGANISE A SUCCESSFUL BUSINESS CONFERENCE

To start with
Advance planning is the key to a hassle-free conference. The key players of a successful conference are the delegates, so identify the audience and then tailor the programme you are planning to their particular needs.

Where and when
The date and venue should then be chosen. These are often interdependent, and when choosing the date take into account the timing of similar regular events which may clash. Also consider holiday periods which may mean that people are away and so will not be able to attend.

When choosing a venue, check how easy it is to reach by train and plane etc. and the availability of parking for those driving. Visit the venue personally: consider the size of the main lecture hall and whether it is big enough for the anticipated number of delegates, then look into the potential of having breakout areas for separating into a number of groups for discussions. Then check whether there is a suitable lounge area for the teal coffee breaks and an exhibition space for display stands if required.

Who
The next stage is to choose the speakers and invite them, making sure you give them ample notice so they are more likely to be available. Ask only those people that you know speak well. Do not try and speak yourself in addition to organising the conference, as this will be too demanding.

Contacting people
Let people know the date and venue by an early mailshot. This allows them, if they are interested, to put the date into their diaries. At the same time, contact all the speakers again, confirming their particular topic, the audio-visual aids which will be available and finding out their accommodation requirements. Ask them to provide a written summary of their presentation for distribution to delegates at the conference.

Final arrangements
Approximately 4-5 weeks before the conference, confirm the provisional numbers with the venue. Contact them again about two weeks prior to the conference to confirm final numbers, decide on menus and finalise the arrangements.

Prepare delegate packs to include a name badge, delegate list and programme. The venue should provide pads of paper and pens .Then prepare questionnaires for all delegates to complete at the end of the conference. Their responses will enable you to gauge the success of the conference and start planning the next one!

Questions 15-20
Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 15-20 on your answer sheet.

ORGANISING A BUSINESS CONFERENCE
First steps:
– decide who the conference is for
– ensure the programme fulfils delegates’ requirements
Venue and timing:
– try to avoid scheduling the conference during 15……….times or when other annual conferences occur
– check accessibility by different modes of transport
– choose a place with a large hall and also 16 ……………. spaces for smaller meetings
Speakers:
– choose appropriate speakers
– give the speakers as much 17 ………… as possible
Communication:
– send out a mailshot to potential delegates
– confirm individual details with speakers. check if they will need accommodation and request a 18 …………. of their presentation
Final tasks:
– give the venue precise numbers of attendees
– make sure each person attending receives information about the conference and a 19……………. for identification
– use 20…………… to get opinions on the conference

Read the text below and answer Questions 21-27.

How to deal with the annual performance appraisal

The annual performance appraisal can help improve your productivity and provide a foundation for your work priorities. It is, however, critical to have the right attitude and approach. Knowing what areas your superiors see as your weaknesses is the most direct way of increasing the likelihood of being considered for promotion, if that is what you are looking for.

Preparation
Send your boss a summary of your achievements. Reminding your boss of activities, special assignments you did, and projects you were in charge of helps him or her create a more accurate performance appraisal. Consider keeping notes of these on a regular basis to make it easier to provide the data when required.

Create a list of questions you would like to discuss during your appraisal. This one-on-one time with your boss is an excellent opportunity to ask him or her about your role in the company, request any additional responsibilities you would like and clarify your priorities. But it is best to focus your attention around personal and professional improvements, rather than financial considerations, such as an increase in salary.

During the appraisal
Present a positive attitude as soon as you enter the appraisal room. This approach may lead to a more constructive discussion of review items. Avoid taking any negative assessments that arc offered as a personal attack, but rather try to take them on board calmly, because if you put the failings right you will improve your performance. A realistic assessment of your strengths and weaknesses can be one of the most beneficial ways of helping you advance in the company.

After the appraisal
Create a list of personal goals based on your performance appraisal. Make the items detailed and measurable if possible. Send this list to your boss so he or she knows you took the appraisal seriously. Use this list to help achieve higher scores on your next performance appraisal. Six months after the appraisal, ask for a mid-term review with your boss to discuss your progress. This session should be more relaxed and informal than the official review. Ask for more feedback to help you improve. Checking in with your boss helps him or her remember your dedication as far as your job is concerned, and may help remove any criticisms before they become a review point on your next formal appraisal.

Questions 21-27
Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 21-27 on your answer sheet.

21. By learning at an appraisal what areas of work need improving, staff can improve their chances of getting ……….
22. It is important to think of some………… that can be used during the appraisal.
23. The appraisal can be a good time to ask the boss for extra……………
24. React……….. to any criticism.
25. It is helpful to identify a number of individual………….. arising from the appraisal comments.
26. Staff can request a meeting half-way through the year to look at the ………….. which has been achieved.
27. If staff act on any appraisal comments, they will demonstrate their………. to their work.

SECTION 3
Questions 28-33
The text on pages 72 and 73 has six sections, A-F.
Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, in boxes 28-33 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings
i Gaining public recognition
ii Reasons for continuing to make the long journey
iii A disappointment followed by desirable outcomes
iv The main stages of the plan
v A growth in the number of natural predators
vi Increasing threats
Vii A very unusual feature of these birds
Viii Cautious optimism

28 Section A
29 Section B
30 Section C
31 Section D
32 Section E
33 Section F

Efforts to save a special bird — the spoon-billed sandpiper
Last year an international team of ornithologists devised a bold
plan to rescue one of the world’s rarest birds. Gerrit Vyn reports.

A At first glance the spoon-billed sandpiper resembles other small migratory birds of the sandpiper family that breed across the Arctic. But it is the only one to have developed a flattened bill that flares out into a ‘spoon’ at the end, and that makes it special. If it becomes extinct, thousands of years of evolution will come to an end, which would be a real tragedy.

The bird’s Russian name, kulik-lopaten, means ‘shovel beak’, which is an apt description of a remarkable structure. The bill is 19 mm long and 10 mm wide near the tip and the edges are lined with sharp serrations, called papillae. Theories have varied as to how the bill functions; one suggestion is that the sandpiper sweeps it through the water in a similar fashion to its larger namesake, the spoonbill. But Nigel Clark, a leading authority on the sandpiper, says the comparison is misleading.

B Until a few years ago, the spoon-billed sandpiper had never been fully documented, which added to its fascination. But an air of mystery is not helpful if you’re a Critically Endangered species. So the organisation ‘Birds Russia’ decided to produce a photographic and audio record of this imperilled bird with the help of experts round the world. In May of last year, I joined the international expedition to one of the species’ last breeding strongholds in North-East Russia. The primary aim of the two-and-a-half month expedition, however, was to collect eggs from wild sandpipers; those eggs would then be hatched in captivity nearby. Later, the chicks would be flown to the Wildfowl and Wetlands Trust (WWT) headquarters at Slimbridge in the UK, in order to establish a small, self-sustaining population there. These birds would provide a ‘safety net’, an insurance policy against the wild birds dying out.

C You might wonder why birds like the spoon-billed sandpiper travel such great distances, about 8,000 km in total, from their wintering grounds on the tropical coasts of Bangladesh, Burma and Vietnam in South-East Asia to breed on the low land, commonly called tundra, in North-East Russia, but from the birds’ point of view it is worth it. Though they often arrive to find hostile, wintry weather while they are finding their mates and making their nests, there are relatively few predators there, and the abundance of insects that emerge during the brief but intense Arctic summer creates ideal conditions for raising their chicks.

D Two main factors are responsible for the sandpiper’s recent rapid decline: the ongoing destruction of stopover habitat on its migration route and hunting on its wintering grounds. The development of new industrial cities is destroying former tidal areas, where sandpipers and other migratory birds used to rest and refuel. Subsistence hunting is certainly a hazard in some Asian countries, where hunters trap birds for food. Conservationists are targeting this problem with small-scale interventions. For example, hunters from 40 villages have been given alternative sources of income, such as cool boxes in which they can take fish to sell at markets, in return for a halt to the bird-netting.

E Once the expedition team had reached its destination, it was seven days before we spotted the first sandpiper. In the following days, more began to arrive and the males’ song was heard, advertising their patches of territory to potential mates. As the sandpipers paired up, the song gave way to the quiet of egg-laying and incubation. In total nine nests were found. The first one was lost to a predator, along with the female attending it. This was a stark reminder of the vulnerability of a tiny population to natural events, such as storms or predation.

The team then selected donor nests and transferred the eggs to specially prepared incubators. They collected 20 eggs in all, taking entire clutches each time — it was early in the breeding season, so the females were likely to lay replacements. Then 50 days after our arrival, the moment arrived: I witnessed my first wild spoon-billed sandpipers hatch. I had been lying inside a wind-battered hide for 36 hours when I saw the first tiny chicks emerge from the eggs. Having hidden a microphone near the nest, I could also just hear their first calls. Later, I watched them stumbling through the 15 cm-high jungle of grasses on comically oversized legs and feet. But my joy was tempered by concern. Difficulties on their migration route and in their wintering areas meant that other tiny creatures like these faced immense dangers.

F The complex rescue plan does give some grounds for hope. Young chicks were flown to WWT Slimbridge last year and again this summer. A high-tech biosecure unit has been built for them there. It is divided in two, with the older birds in one section and this year’s chicks in the other. To minimise the risk of infections, staff change into full-body overalls and rubber shoes and wash their hands before entering. Hygiene is crucial: even a single strand of human hair could harm the chicks by becoming twisted round their legs or bills. The rescue plan’s final stage, once the captive flock has built up sufficiently, will be to fly eggs back to Russia, to release the chicks there. It’s a gamble, but when the survival of a species this special is at stake, you have to try.

Questions 34-37
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in boxes 34-37 on your answer sheet.

34 What was the main purpose of the international expedition?
A to add sandpiper eggs to an international frozen egg bank
B to maintain a small group of sandpipers for future generations
C to make an audiovisual record of the Russian sandpiper colony
D to protect a colony of wild sandpipers through a breeding season

35 What do we learn about the drop in the sandpiper population?
A The birds are increasingly being hunted on their way north to Russia.
B Scientists are managing to reduce deaths from netting considerably.
C Efforts are being made to protect some of their coastal habitat sites.
D Economic growth is one of the underlying causes of the decline.

36 Which feeling did the writer express when the sandpiper chicks hatched?
A relief that his long wait was over
B surprise at the sound of their song
C worry about birds of the same species
D amazement that they could walk so soon

37 The writer describes the sandpipers’ unit at WWT Slimbridge to emphasise
A how much care is being devoted to their welfare.
B how much money is being spent on the project.
C his surprise at how fragile the young birds are.
D his confidence in the technology available.

Questions 38-40
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.

The life cycle of the spoon-billed sandpiper

In early spring, spoon-billed sandpipers return to their breeding grounds in Russia in the area known as 38………… Although the weather there is often very harsh to begin with, there are obvious advantages to the sandpipers. There is above all a plentiful supply of 39…………. and this makes it possible for the sandpiper chicks to develop well. The lack of 40…………………… is another definite advantage. As a result, a good proportion of the chicks grow up to face the long flight to the South-East Asian coasts.

SECTION 1
Read the text below and answer Questions 1-6.

Sustainable School Travel Strategy

Over the last 20 years, the number of children being driven to school in England has doubled. National data suggests that one in five cars on the road at 8.50 am is engaged in the school run. Children are subject to up to 3.9 times more pollution in a car that is standing in traffic than when walking or cycling to school. Reducing cars around schools makes them safer places, and walking and cycling are better for health and the environment. It has been noted by teachers that children engaging in active travel arrive at school more alert and ready to learn.

The County Council has a strong commitment to supporting and promoting sustainable school travel. We collect data annually about how pupils get to school, and our report on the Sustainable School Travel Strategy sets out in detail what we have achieved so far and what we intend to do in the future. Different parts of the County Council are working together to address the actions identified in the strategy, and we are proud that we have been able to reduce the number of cars on the daily school run by an average of 1% in each of the last three years, which is equivalent to taking approximately 175 cars off the road annually, despite an increase in pupil numbers.

All schools have a School Travel Plan, which sets out how the school and the Council can collaborate to help reduce travel to school by car and encourage the use of public transport. Contact your school to find out what they are doing as part of their School Travel Plan to help you get your child to school in a sustainable, safe way.

Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text on page 41?
In boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                    if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                  if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN       if there is no information on this

1. More children are injured when walking or cycling to school than when travelling by car.
2. Children who are driven to school are more ready to learn than those who walk or cycle.
3. Every year the Council gathers information about travel to schools.
4. The Council is disappointed with the small reduction in the number of cars taking children to school.
5. The number of children in schools has risen in recent years.
6. Parents can get help with paying for their children to travel to school by public transport.

Read the text below and answer Question 7-14

Flu: the facts

A Flu (influenza) is an acute viral respiratory infection. It spreads easily from person to person: at home, at school, at work, at the supermarket or on the train.

B It gets passed on when someone who already has flu coughs or sneezes and is transmitted through the air by droplets, or it can be spread by hands infected by the virus.

C Symptoms can include fever, chills, headache, muscle pain, extreme fatigue, a dry cough, sore throat and stuffy nose. Most people will recover within a week but flu can cause severe illness or even death in people at high risk. It is estimated that 18,500-24,800 deaths in England and Wales are attributable to influenza infections annually.

D Vaccination is the most effective way to prevent infection. Although anyone can catch flu, certain people are at greater risk from the implications of flu, as their bodies may not be able to fight the virus. If you are over 65 years old, or suffer from asthma, diabetes, or certain other conditions, you are considered at greater risk from flu and the implications can be serious. If you fall into one of these ‘at-risk’ groups, are pregnant or a carer, you are eligible for a free flu vaccination.

E If you are not eligible for a free flu vaccination, you can still protect yourself and those around you from flu by getting a flu vaccination at a local pharmacy.

F About seven to ten days after vaccination, your body makes antibodies that help to protect you against any similar viruses that may infect you. This protection lasts about a year.

G A flu vaccination contains inactivated, killed virus strains so it can’t give you the flu. However, a flu vaccination can take up to two weeks to begin working, so it is possible to catch flu in this period.

H A flu vaccination is designed to protect you against the most common and potent strains of flu circulating so there is a small chance you could catch a strain of flu not contained in the flu vaccine.

I The influenza virus is constantly changing and vaccines are developed to protect against the predicted strains each year so it is important to get vaccinated against the latest strains.

Speak to your GP or nurse today to book your flu vaccination.

Questions 7-14
The text on page 43 has nine sections, A—I. Which sections contain the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 7-14 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any answer more than once.

7. examples of people who are likely to be particularly badly affected by flu
8. how to get a vaccination if you choose to pay for it
9. why new vaccines become available
10. how long a vaccine remains effective
11. reference to the possibility of catching a different type of flu from the ones in the vaccine
12. categories of people who do not have to pay for vaccination
13. information about what a vaccine consists of
14. signs that you might have flu

SECTION 2
Read the text below and answer Questions 15-22.

Tips for giving an effective business presentation

Preparation
Get someone else to evaluate your performance and highlight your best skills. For example, go through your presentation in front of a colleague or relative. Think about who your audience is and what you want them to get out of the presentation. Think about content and style.

Go into the presentation room and try out any moves you may have to make, e.g. getting up from your chair and moving to the podium. Errors in the first 20 seconds can be very disorientating.

Familiarise yourself with the electronic equipment before the presentation and also have a backup plan in mind, should there be an unexpected problem like a power cut.

Dealing with presentation nervousness
A certain amount of nervousness is vital for a good presentation. The added adrenaline will keep your faculties sharp and give your presentation skills extra force. This can, however, result in tension in the upper chest. Concentrate on your breathing. Slow it right down and this will relax you. Strangely, having something to pick up and put down tends to help you do this.

It may seem an odd idea, but we seem to feel calmer when we engage in what’s referred to as a displacement activity, like clicking a pen or fiddling with jewellery. A limited amount of this will not be too obvious and can make you feel more secure at the start.

Interacting with your audience
Think of your presentation as a conversation with your audience. They may not actually say anything, but make them feel consulted, questioned, challenged, then they will stay awake and attentive.

Engage with your present audience, not the one you have prepared for. Keep looking for reactions to your ideas and respond to them. If your audience doesn’t appear to be following you, find another way to get your ideas across. If you don’t interact, you might as well send a video recording of your presentation instead!

Structuring effective presentations
Effective presentations arc full of examples. These help your listeners to see more clearly what you mean. It’s quicker and more colourful. Stick to the point using three or four main ideas. For any subsidiary information that you cannot present in 20 minutes, try another medium, such as handouts.

End as if your presentation has gone well. Do this even if you feel you’ve presented badly. And anyway a good finish will get you some applause — and you deserve it!

Questions 15-22
Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 15-22 on your answer sheet.

15. Practising your presentation on a………… or a family member is helpful.
16. Be prepared for a problem such as a…………..
17. One way to overcome pre-presentation nerves is to make your……. less rapid.
18. It is acceptable to do something called a ……….at the start of the presentation to reassure you.
19. Your presentation should be like a………….. with the people who have come to hear you.
20. Check constantly for…………….to the points you are making.
21. Make sure you use plenty of……………….. to communicate your message effectively.
22. To keep the presentation short, use things like…………………. to provide extra details.

Read the text below and answer Questions 23-27.

How to get a job in journalism

You can get a good qualification in journalism, but what employers actually want is practical, rather than theoretical, knowledge. There’s no substitute for creating real stories that have to be handed in by strict deadlines. So write for your school magazine, then maybe try your hand at editing. Once you’ve done that for a while, start requesting internships in newspapers in the area. These are generally short-term and unpaid, but they’re definitely worthwhile, since, instead of providing you with money, they’ll teach you the skills that every twenty-first century journalist has to have, like laying out articles, creating web pages, taking good digital pictures and so on.

Most reporters keep a copy of every story they’ve had published, from secondary school onwards. They’re called cuttings, and you need them to get a job — indeed a few impressive ones can be the deciding factor in whether you’re appointed or not. So start creating a portfolio now that will show off your developing talent.

It seems obvious — research is an important part of an effective job hunt. But it’s surprising how many would-be journalists do little or none. If you’re thorough, it can help you decide whether the job you’re thinking about applying for is right for you. And nothing impresses an editor more than an applicant who knows a lot about the paper.
There are two more elements to an application —your covering letter and curriculum vitae. However, your CV is the thing that will attract an editor’s attention first, so get it right. The key words arc brevity, (no more than one page) accuracy (absolutely no spelling or typing errors) and clarity (it should be easy to follow).

In journalism, good writing skills are essential, so Ws critical that the style of your letter is appropriate. And, make sure it conveys your love of journalism and your eagerness to do the work.

Questions 23-27
Complete the flow chart below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 23-27 on your answer sheet.

Getting a job in journalism
– Gain relevant experience e.g. writing article to meet specific deadlines
– Apply for temporary (23)……. with local papers and acquire extra (24)……. you will need
– Build up a set of (25)…… in a portfolio displaying how your writing ability has progressed over time
– Take time to do detailed (26)…… first before applying for a post with a paper
– Once you decide to apply make sure your CV is short, makes sense and is without (27)…….. of any kind
– Write your covering letter paying particular attention to style

SECTION 3
Questions 28-35
The text on pages 50 and 51 has eight sections. A—H. Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number i—x, in boxes 28-35 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings
i Why Perriss chose a career in supermarkets
ii Preparing for customers to arrive
iii Helping staff to develop
iv Demonstrating a different way of organising a store
v The benefit of accurate forecasting
vi Keeping everything running as smoothly as possible
vii Making sure the items on sale are good enough
viii Noticing when customers need assistance
ix How do staff feel about Perriss?
x Perriss’s early career

28 Section A
29 Section B
30 Section C
31 Section D
32 Section E
33 Section F
34 Section G
35 Section H

What is it like to run a large supermarket?
Jill Insley finds out

A You can’t beat really good service. I’ve been shopping in the Thamesmead branch of supermarket chain Morrisons, in south-east London, and I’ve experienced at first hand, the store’s latest maxim for improving the shopping experience — help, offer, thank. This involves identifying customers who might need help, greeting them, asking what they need, providing it, thanking them and leaving them in peace. If they don’t look like they want help, they’ll be left alone. But if they’re standing looking lost and perplexed, a member of staff will approach them. Staff are expected to be friendly to everyone. My checkout assistant has certainly said something to amuse the woman in front of me, she’s smiling as she leaves. Adrian Perriss, manager of the branch, has discussed the approach with each of his 387 staff. He says it’s about recognising that someone needs help, not being a nuisance to them. When he’s in another store, he’s irritated by someone saying, ‘Can I help you?’ when he’s only just walked in to have a quick look at the products.

B How anyone can be friendly and enthusiastic when they start work at dawn beats me. The store opens at 7 am, Monday to Saturday, meaning that some staff, including Perriss, have to be here at 6 am to make sure it’s clean, safe and stocked up for the morning rush. Sometimes he walks in at 6 am and thinks they’re never going to be ready on time — but they always are. There’s so much going on overnight — 20 people working on unloading three enormous trailers full of groceries.

C Perriss has worked in supermarkets since 1982, when he became a trolley boy on a weekly salary of £76. ‘It was less money than my previous job, but I loved it. It was different and diverse. I was doing trolleys, portering, bread, cakes, dairy and general maintenance.’ After a period in the produce department, looking after the fruit and vegetables, he was made produce manager, then assistant store manager, before reaching the top job in 1998. This involved intensive training and assessment through the company’s future store manager programme, learning how to analyse and prioritise sales. wastage, recruitment and many other issues. Perriss’ first stop as store manager was at a store which was closed soon afterwards — though he was not to blame.

D Despite the disappointing start, his career went from strength to strength and he was put in charge of launching new stores and heading up a ‘concept’ store, where the then new ideas of preparing and cooking pizzas in store, and having a proper florist, and fruit and vegetable ‘markets’ were Mailed. All Morrisons’ managers from the whole country spent three days there to see the new concept. ‘That was hard work,’ he says, ‘long days, seven days a week, for about a year.’

E Although he oversees a store with a large turnover, there is a strongly practical aspect to Perriss’s job. As we walk around, he chats to all the staff while checking the layout of their counters and the quality of the produce. He examines the baking potato shelf and rejects three, one that has split virtually in half and two that are beginning to go green. He then pulls out a lemon that looks fine to me. When I ask why, he picks up a second lemon and says: ‘Close your eyes and just feel and tell me which you would keep.’ I do and realise that while one is firm and hard, the other is going a bit squashy.

F Despite eagle-eyed Perriss pulling out fruit and veg that most of us would buy without a second thought, the wastage each week is tiny: produce worth £4,200 is marked down for a quick sale, and only £400-worth is scrapped. This, he explains, is down to Morrisons’ method of ordering, still done manually rather than by computer. Department heads know exactly how much they’ve sold that day and how much they’re likely to sell the next, based on sales records and allowing for influences such as the weather.

G Perriss is in charge of 1,000 man-hours a week across the store. To help him, he has a key team of four, who each have direct responsibility for different departments. He is keen to hear what staff think. He recently held a ‘talent’ day, inviting employees interested in moving to a new job within the store to come and talk to him about why they thought they should be promoted, and discuss how to go about it. ‘We had twenty-three people come through the door, people wanting to talk about progression,’ he says. ‘What do they need to do to become a supervisor? Twenty-three people will be better members of staff as a result of that talk.’

H His favourite department is fish, which has a 4 m-long counter run by Debbie and Angela, who are busy having a discussion about how to cook a particular fish with a customer. But it is one of just 20 or so departments around the store and Perriss admits the pressure of making sure he knows what’s happening on them all can be intense. ‘You have to do so much and there could be something wrong with every single one, every day,’ he says. ‘You’ve got to minimise those things and shrink them into perspective. You’ve got to love the job.’ And Perriss certainly does.

Questions 36-40
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text on pages 50 and 51?
In boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                      if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                    if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN         if there is no information on this

36 Perriss encourages staff to offer help to all customers.
37 Perriss is sometimes worried that customers will arrive before the store is ready for them.
38 When Perriss first became a store manager, he knew the store was going to close.
39 On average, produce worth £4,200 is thrown away every week.
40 Perriss was surprised how many staff asked about promotion on the ‘talent’ day.

SECTION 1
Read the text below and answer Questions 1-5.

Is Your Child At School Today?
School Attendance Information For Parents/ Carers

Introduction
Receiving a good full-time education will give your child the best possible start in life. Attending school regularly and punctually is essential if children are to make the most of the opportunities available to them. The law says that parents must ensure that their child regularly attends the school where he/she is registered.

What you can do to help
• Make sure your child arrives at school on time. This encourages habits of good timekeeping and lessens any possible classroom disruption. If your child arrives after the register has closed without a good reason, this will be recorded as an ‘unauthorised’ absence for that session.
• If your child has to miss school it is vital that you let the school know why, preferably on the first morning of absence. (Your child’s school will have an attendance policy explaining how this should be done.)
• If you know or think that your child is having difficulties attending school you should contact the school. It is better to do this sooner rather than later, as most problems can be dealt with very quickly.

Authorised and Unauthorised Absence
If your child is absent and the school either does not receive an explanation from you, or considers the explanation unsatisfactory, it will record your child’s absence as ‘unauthorised’, that is, as truancy.

Most absences for acceptable reasons will be authorised by your child’s school:
• Sickness
• Unavoidable medical or dental appointments (if possible, arrange these for after school or during school holidays)
• An interview with a prospective employer or college
• Exceptional family circumstances, such as bereavement
• Days of religious observance.

Your child’s school will not authorise absence for the following reasons:
• Shopping during school hours
• Day trips
• Holidays which have not been agreed
• Birthdays
• Looking after brothers or sisters or ill relatives.

Questions 1-5
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text on pages 18 and 19? In boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                       if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                     if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN         if there is no information on this

1. Children must go to the school where they are registered.
2. All arrivals after the register has closed are recorded as ‘unauthorised’ absences.
3. If your child is absent from school, you must send the school a letter to explain why.
4. Staff who think a child is having difficulties at school will contact the parents.5. Schools will contact other authorities about children who take frequent unauthorised absences.

Read the text below and answer Questions 6-14.

Holiday Apartment To Let

A Sleeps 2-3. One-bedroom apartment with uninterrupted sea views. This is a small first floor apartment in a well-established apartment complex containing a range of leisure facilities and a supermarket for residents. On the edge of the town but close to cafés and restaurants. On-street parking is generally available.

B Sleeps 2-4. Spacious one-bedroom apartment in a complex that has only just opened, five minutes’ walk from the sea. Private parking in front of building. It is located in a quiet, unspoilt village with a local market, banks, cafés and restaurants. There are some fabulous championship golf courses within easy walking distance.

C Sleeps 2+child. One-bedroom cottage (child’s bed can also be provided), large terrace with uninterrupted views of the river and mountains. A truly peaceful location in a picturesque village, but less than ten minutes’ drive from the coast and all the amenities of a town. Owners live nearby and are happy to help in any way they can.

D Sleeps 2-5. Two-bedroom apartment in a complex with its own pool and beautiful views of the national park. A peaceful location just 3 km from the town centre, where there are plenty of shops and excellent sports facilities. Superb local golf courses within easy reach.

E Sleeps 2-4. Modern one-bedroom first floor apartment in house, owners resident on ground floor. This great location offers easy access to all that this fantastic town has to offer, a few minutes’ drive from its supermarket, bank, cafés, restaurants. The ferry to the island beach leaves from 100 m away. Ten minutes walk from the new shopping centre, which has many shops, food hall, cinema and multi-storey car park.

F Sleeps 2. One-bedroom first floor apartment. Beautifully furnished, offering a high standard of comfort. Situated in a peaceful location on the edge of an inland village, with attractive views of the golf course. Many restaurants, bars, shops etc. are within easy walking distance. Garage available by arrangement with the owners.

G Sleeps 2-4. Two-bedroom apartment in central location in busy street with shops, restaurants etc. not far from the beach. The town has ideal facilities for holidays all year round, including swimming pool, tennis courts and golf course.

Questions 6-14
The text on page 21 has seven sections, A—G. For which apartment are the following statements true?
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 6-14 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

6. It overlooks a golf course.
7. It has its own parking space.
8. It is in the centre of a town.
9. The sea can be seen from it.
10. There is a swimming pool for residents of the apartment complex.
11. It is in a new apartment complex.
12. It is part of an apartment complex with its own supermarket.
13. It has a private outdoor area where you can sit.
14. The owners will organise parking on request.

SECTION 2
Read the text below and answer Questions 15-21.

GZJ Travel – Recruitment Info

We’re looking for keen and effective people who are passionate about travel to work as Travel Sales Consultants in our rapidly-growing team. Our recruitment process has five stages. Here’s how it works:

The first stage is to use our online application form to apply for a current vacancy. This is your chance to tell us about yourself, and the qualities and experience you have that make you the ideal person for the job. For the Travel Sales Consultant role, you’ll need to provide us with evidence that you have extensive experience in a marketing environment, as well as a solid academic background. If you’re interested in a career as a Corporate Travel Consultant, you’ll need at least one year’s experience as a Travel Consultant.

If you reach Stage Two, we’ll arrange a telephone discussion, where you can find out more about us, including the rewards on offer. For instance, once a year we like to acknowledge outstanding efforts and celebrate successes with our co-workers, and we have prize-giving ceremonies designed to do just this.

In Stage Three we’ll be able to give you more information about GZJ Travel, and find out more about you, at an interview which you’ll attend with a small group of other applicants. We’ll be asking you about your ambitions and of course your sales ability, the most vital quality for our business You’ll also be required to complete a psychometric test so we can find out more about your working style and characteristics. We’ll also tell you about some of the perks – for example, as a Flight Center employee you can take advantage of the free consultations conducted by our in-house health and wellbeing team, Healthwise.

Next, in Stage Four, you’ll be introduced to the Area Leader and you’ll also visit one of our shops, where you’ll meet the team and find out more about the sort of work that’s involved. If you successfully pass Stage Four, you’ve reached the final stage of the process and we’ll be in touch with a job offer! And if you accept, we’ll book you into our Learning Center to get your training under way as soon as possible. Careerwise, the department responsible for the training, will then organise individual coaching to assist in setting goals for your career path.

Questions 15-21
Complete the flow-chart below. Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the text for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 15-21 on your answer sheet.

GZJ Travel – Recruitment Process
Stage One – Application Form – go online and apply for jobs advertised – give proof of achievements so far both in education and in a (15)………………. (Note: additional requirements for applicants interested in the role of (16)……………….)
Stage Two – Telephonic Discussion – more information given about company and the (17)………………..you could receive – information about annual event where prizes are given to those who have made (18)…………………
Stage Three – Group Interview – chance to tell us about how good you are at selling, and also about the (19)…………………you have – take part in a (20)………………….(used to learn about your way of working) – information given on benefits (e.g. health consultations)
Stage Four – Individual Interview – meet a manager, and the (21)………………working in a particular store
Stage Five – Job Offer – job offer sent out to successful applicants

Read the text below and answer Questions 22-27.

Hilton Laboratory
Health And Safety In The Workplace

Personal safety
You must be familiar with the emergency procedures in your building so that you know what to do in the event of fire, spillages or other accidents. Do not enter restricted areas without authorization, and at all times observe the warnings given. Do not wedge open fire doors or tamper with door closures, and do not block doorways, corridors or stairs, as obstructions may affect access in the event of a fire. Avoid leaving drawers and doors open unnecessarily and do not trail cables or flexes across the floor.

How to dispose of rubbish safely
We aim to protect the environment by saving and recycling glass, waste paper, and an increasing range of other materials. It is important to check materials carefully for contamination before placing them in recycling containers. Never put sharp objects such as razor blades or broken glass into waste bins without having wrapped the items carefully to protect those emptying the bins. Other waste procedures may vary — contact your Building Manager or Divisional Safety Officer for advice with regard to your particular department.

How to handle heavy objects
Make sure that shelves are not overloaded and that glass and heavy objects are stored at working height where they will be easier to reach. Use steps or ladders to reach items at height; never climb on benches, tables or chairs. Never move anything that is beyond your capability. Wherever possible you should use the trolleys provided in the workplace to do the job for you. If repetitive manual operations are routine in your work, your department will ensure you receive appropriate instruction on safe working practices and posture.

Staying alert
If you become mentally or physically tired during the working day, and find that you’re feeling drowsy or not concentrating properly, you could be at risk of causing an accident or making a mistake that could harm you or your colleagues. To prevent this, make sure that you take regular breaks when necessary.

Questions 22-27
Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 22-27 on your answer sheet.

22. There are certain places in the building that staff should avoid unless they have……
23. To ensure people can get out easily, it is important that there are no……… to exits.
24. Items which could cause injury must be……before they are disposed of.
25. Not all departments have the same system for dealing with…… so you need to check before throwing things away.
26. … are available to make tasks which require moving objects easier.
27. You should have… while you are working.

SECTION 3 
Questions 28-34
The text on pages 28 and 29 has seven sections. A-G. Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number i-x, in boxes 28-34 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings
i A decrease in the zebra population
ii An obstruction on the traditional route
iii An unknown species
iv Some confusing information
v Staying permanently in the Makgadikgadi
vi Nearly a record in the zebra world
vii Three different ways of living
viii The original aim of the work
ix How was the information passed on?
X Why it is important to study zebras

28 Section A
29 Section B
30 Section C
31 Section D
32 Section E
33 Section F
34 Section G

The Zebra’s Long Walk Across Africa

James Gifford investigates some interesting new research into migration patterns of zebras living in Botswana in southern Africa

A For any animal to travel over 270 km in Botswana partly across the sand and low bush terrain of the Kalahari Desert is a remarkable achievement. But to do so in 11 days and without any obvious motivation, as this zebra population does, is quite extraordinary. On average their journey involves an exhausting round-trip of 588 km — between the Makgadikgadi salt pan area and the Okavango river — making it second only to the great trek undertaken by the zebra herds in the Serengeti National Park. However, what is even more incredible still in my view is that until recently it was completely unheard of.

B Hattie Bartlam, a researcher, discovered this migration while she was tracking zebra groups, officially known as harems, by the Okavango river for her PhD. Each harem consists of a stallion and his seven or eight mares with juvenile foals. There is no loyalty between zebras beyond this social group, though harems often gather together into so-called herds. For her study, Hattie had planned to compare the small-scale movement patterns of 11 different zebra herds in the area.

C In December, when the annual rains had transformed the roads into rivers, Hattie was, therefore, more than a little surprised when she checked the data sent by the radio collars she fits to the zebras she is tracking to find that six of the harems were 270 km away on the edge of the Makgadikgadi, a huge mineral-rich area where salt has collected over the years as water evaporates in the heat. Then, when the last of the moisture from the rains had disappeared in May the following year, five of those harems came wearily back to the Okavango. This raised the question: why, despite a plentiful supply of food and water, were the zebras being drawn eastwards to the salt pans? Even more difficult to understand was what made six of the groups travel so far, while the other five remained by the Okavango.

D This discovery created quite a buzz in the research community. I decided to visit Hattie and she explained that a century ago the large number of Botswana’s zebra and wildebeest herds and the resulting competition for grass made migration essential. One of the migration tracks went from the Okavango to Makgadikgadi. But in the late 1960s, giant fences were put up to stop foot and mouth and other diseases spreading between wildlife and domestic cattle. One of these went across the migration track. Though the animals could get round the obstacle, each leg of their journey would now be 200 km longer – an impossible distance given the lack of permanent water on the extended route. Even today, with the fence gone (it was taken down in 2004), there is dangerously little drinking water to support the zebras on the return journey to the Okavango.

E As a zebra can live up to 20 years, the migration must have skipped at least one generation during the 40 or so years that the fences were up. This prompts another question: it has always been assumed that the young of social herbivores like zebras learn migratory behaviour from their parents, so how did the latest generation learn when and where to go? Not from their parents, who were prevented from migrating. Did they follow another species, such as elephants? We may never know.

F Hattie’s data points to the conclusion that there are several zebra populations adopting different behaviour. The first, like the vast majority of the Okavango zebras, take it easy, spending the entire year by the river. The second group, 15,000-20,000 strong, work a bit harder. They divide their time between the Makgadikgadi salt pans and the Boteti River, which is reasonably near by. They sometimes struggle to find water in the Boteti area during the dry season, often moving 30 km in search of fresh grazing. Their reward: the juicy grass around the Makgadikgadi after the rains. The final group of zebras, whose numbers are more modest (though as yet unknown), must surely be considered as among the animal kingdom’s most remarkable athletes. By moving between the Okavango and the salt pans, they enjoy the best of both worlds. But the price they pay is an extraordinary journey across Botswana.

G Endangered species naturally tend to grab the headlines, so it’s refreshing for a relatively abundant animal like the zebra to be the centre of attention for once. Zebras are a vital part of the food chain: understanding their migration in turn helps us to interpret the movements of their predators, and Hattie’s research has shed light on the impact of fences on migratory animals. So what triggered her interest in zebras? She explains that it is easier to get funding to study exciting animals like lions. Crucial as that undoubtedly is, she believes that herbivores like zebras are key to understanding any ecosystem. The scientific community is fortunate that people like Hattie are willing to take the hard option.

Questions 35-37
Complete the summary below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 35-37 on your answer sheet.

Social behaviour in zebras

Zebras tend to live together in small units, which experts call 35………… Here, a male zebra has charge of a number of adult 36……….. and their young. These units sometimes assemble in bigger groupings or 37………… but it is still clear that the zebras’ loyalty only extends to the small unit they live in.

Questions 38-40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.

38 How did Hattie feel when she heard some of the zebras had travelled so far?
A annoyed because she would have to follow them to Makgadikgadi
B disappointed that not all of them made it back to Okavango
C frustrated as the rains had made the roads unusable
D unsure as to their real motivation for going

39 When describing the different Botswana zebra populations, the writer indicates
A his admiration for the ones who migrate the furthest distance.
B his sympathy for the ones who stay by the Okavango River.
C his disbelief that those by the Boteti have difficulty finding food.
D his anxiety that their migration patterns may not be able to continue.

40 What does the writer suggest in the final paragraph?
A Too much time has been wasted on research into the predators like lions.
B It is sometimes necessary to go against the trend in research matters
C Research will result in a ban on fences in areas where zebras live.
D Research into animals which are not endangered will increase.

The Story of Silk

Silk is a fine, smooth material produced from the cocoons – soft protective shells – that are made by mulberry silkworms (insect larvae). Legend has it that it was Lei Tzu, wife of the Yellow Emperor, ruler of China in about 3000 BC, who discovered silkworms. One account of the story goes that as she was taking a walk in her husband’s gardens, she discovered that silkworms were responsible for the destruction of several mulberry trees. She collected a number of cocoons and sat down to have a rest. It just so happened that while she was sipping some tea, one of the cocoons that she had collected landed in the hot tea and started to unravel into a fine thread. Lei Tzu found that she could wind this thread around her fingers. Subsequently, she persuaded her husband to allow her to rear silkworms on a grove of mulberry trees. She also devised a special reel to draw the fibres from the cocoon into a single thread so that they would be strong enough to be woven into fabric. While it is unknown just how much of this is true, it is certainly known that silk cultivation has existed in China for several millennia.

Originally, silkworm farming was solely restricted to women, and it was they who were responsible for the growing, harvesting and weaving. Silk quickly grew into a symbol of status, and originally, only royalty were entitled to have clothes made of silk. The rules were gradually relaxed over the years until finally during the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD), even peasants, the lowest caste, were also entitled to wear silk. Sometime during the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD), silk was so prized that it was also used as a unit of currency. Government officials were paid their salary in silk, and fanners paid their taxes in grain and silk. Silk was also used as diplomatic gifts by the emperor. Fishing lines, bowstrings, musical instruments and paper were all made using silk. The earliest indication of silk paper being used was discovered in the tomb of a noble who is estimated to have died around 168 AD.

Demand for this exotic fabric eventually created the lucrative trade route now known as the Silk Road, taking silk westward and bringing gold, silver and wool to the East. It was named the Silk Road after its most precious commodity, which was considered to be worth more than gold. The Silk Road stretched over 6,000 kilomet res from Eastern China to the Mediterranean Sea, following the Great Wall of China, climbing the Pamir mountain range, crossing modern-day Afghanistan and going on to the Middle East, with a major trading market in Damascus. From there, the merchandise was shipped across the Mediterranean Sea. Few merchants travelled the entire route; goods were handled mostly by a series of middlemen.

With the mulberry silkworm being native to China, the country was the world’s sole producer of silk for many hundreds of years. The secret of silk-making eventually reached the rest of the world via the Byzantine Empire, which ruled over the Mediterranean region of southern Europe, North Africa and the Middle East during the period 330-1453 AD. According to another legend, monks working for the Byzantine emperor Justinian smuggled silkworm eggs to Constantinople (Istanbul in modern-day Turkey) in 550 AD, concealed inside hollow bamboo walking canes. The Byzantines were as secretive as the Chinese, however, and for many centuries the weaving and trading of silk fabric was a strict imperial monopoly. Then in the seventh century, the Arabs conquered Persia, capturing their magnificent silks in the process. Silk production thus spread through Africa, Sicily and Spain as the Arabs swept through these lands. Andalusia in southern Spain was Europe’s main silk- producing centre in the tenth century. By the thirteenth century, however, Italy had become Europe’s leader in silk production and export. Venetian merchants traded extensively in silk and encouraged silk growers to settle in Italy. Even now, silk processed in the province of Como in northern Italy enjoys an esteemed reputation.

The nineteenth century and industrialisation saw the downfall of the European silk industry. Cheaper Japanese silk, trade in which was greatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez Canal, was one of the many factors driving the trend. Then in the twentieth century, new manmade fibres, such as nylon, started to be used in what had traditionally been silk products, such as stockings and parachutes. The two world wars, which interrupted the supply of raw material from Japan, also stifled the European silk industry. After the Second World War, Japan’s silk production was restored, with improved production and quality of raw silk. Japan was to remain the world’s biggest producer of raw silk, and practically the only major exporter of raw silk, until the 1970s. However, in more recent decades, China has gradually recaptured its position as the world’s biggest producer and exporter of raw silk and silk yarn. Today, around 125,000 metric tons of silk are produced in the world, and almost two thirds of that production takes place in China.

Questions 1-9
Complete the notes below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-9 on your answer sheet.

THE STORY OF SILK
Early silk production in China
• Around 3000 BC, according to legend:
• silkworm cocoon fell into emperor’s wife’s (1)……………………..
• emperor’s wife invented a (2)…………………………to pull out silk fibres
• Only (3)……………………………..were allowed to produce silk
• Only (4)……………………………..were allowed to wear silk
• Silk used as a form of (5)…………………………….
• e.g. farmers’ taxes consisted partly of silk
• Silk used for many purposes
• e.g. evidence found of (6)………………………………made from silk around 168 AD

Silk reaches rest of world
• Merchants use Silk Road to take silk westward and bring back (7)…………………………………and precious metals
• 550 AD: (8)……………………………………hide silkworm eggs in canes and take them to Constantinople
• Silk production spreads across Middle East and Europe
• 20th century: (9)……………………………..and other manmade fibres cause decline in silk production

Questions 10-13
Do the following statements agree with the information in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                       if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                     if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN          if there is no information on this

10 Gold was the most valuable material transported along the Silk Road.
11 Most tradesmen only went along certain sections of the Silk Road.
12 The Byzantines spread the practice of silk production across the West.
13 Silk yarn makes up the majority of silk currently exported from China.

Great Migrations

Animal migration, however it is defined, is far more than just the movement of animals. It can loosely be described as travel that takes place at regular intervals – often in an annual cycle – that may involve many members of a species, and is rewarded only after a long journey. It suggests inherited instinct. The biologist Hugh Dingle has identified five characteristics that apply, in varying degrees and combinations, to all migrations. They are prolonged movements that carry animals outside familiar habitats; they tend to be linear, not zigzaggy; they involve special behaviours concerning preparation (such as overfeeding) and arrival; they demand special allocations of energy. And one more: migrating animals maintain an intense attentiveness to the greater mission, which keeps them undistracted by temptations and undeterred by challenges that would turn other animals aside.

An arctic tern, on its 20,000 km flight from the extreme south of South America to the Arctic circle, will take no notice of a nice smelly herring offered from a bird-watcher’s boat along the way. While local gulls will dive voraciously for such handouts, the tern flies on. Why? The arctic tern resists distraction because it is driven at that moment by an instinctive sense of something we humans find admirable: larger purpose. In other words, it is determined to reach its destination. The bird senses that it can eat, rest and mate later. Right now it is totally focused on the journey; its undivided intent is arrival.

Reaching some gravelly coastline in the Arctic, upon which other arctic terns have converged, will serve its larger purpose as shaped by evolution: finding a place, a time, and a set of circumstances in which it can successfully hatch and rear offspring.

But migration is a complex issue, and biologists define it differently, depending in part on what sorts of animals they study. Joe! Berger, of the University of Montana, who works on the American pronghorn and other large terrestrial mammals, prefers what he calls a simple, practical definition suited to his beasts: ‘movements from a seasonal home area away to another home area and back again’. Generally the reason for such seasonal back-and-forth movement is to seek resources that aren’t available within a single area year-round.

But daily vertical movements by zooplankton in the ocean – upward by night to seek food, downward by day to escape predators – can also be considered migration. So can the movement of aphids when, having depleted the young leaves on one food plant, their offspring then fly onward to a different host plant, with no one aphid ever returning to where it started.

Dingle is an evolutionary biologist who studies insects. His definition is more intricate than Berger’s, citing those five features that distinguish migration from other forms of movement. They allow for the fact that, for example, aphids will become sensitive to blue light (from the sky) when it’s time for takeoff on their big journey, and sensitive to yellow light (reflected from tender young leaves) when it’s appropriate to land. Birds will fatten themselves with heavy feeding in advance of a long migrational flight. The value of his definition, Dingle argues, is that it focuses attention on what the phenomenon of wildebeest migration shares with the phenomenon of the aphids, and therefore helps guide researchers towards understanding how evolution has produced them all.

Human behaviour, however, is having a detrimental impact on animal migration. The pronghorn, which resembles an antelope, though they are unrelated, is the fastest land mammal of the New World. One population, which spends the summer in the mountainous Grand Teton National Park of the western USA, follows a narrow route from its summer range in the mountains, across a river, and down onto the plains. Here they wait out the frozen months, feeding mainly on sagebrush blown clear of snow. These pronghorn are notable for the invariance of their migration route and the severity of its constriction at three bottlenecks. If they can’t pass through each of the three during their spring migration, they can’t reach their bounty of summer grazing; if they can’t pass through again in autumn, escaping south onto those windblown plains, they are likely to die trying to overwinter in the deep snow. Pronghorn, dependent on distance vision and speed to keep safe from predators, traverse high, open shoulders of land, where they can see and run. At one of the bottlenecks, forested hills rise to form a V, leaving a corridor of open ground only about 150 metres wide, filled with private homes. Increasing development is leading toward a crisis for the pronghorn, threatening to choke off their passageway.

Conservation scientists, along with some biologists and land managers within the USA’s National Park Service and other agencies, are now working to preserve migrational behaviours, not just species and habitats. A National Forest has recognised the path of the pronghorn, much of which passes across its land, as a protected migration corridor. But neither the Forest Service nor the Park Service can control what happens on private land at a bottleneck. And with certain other migrating species, the challenge is complicated further – by vastly greater distances traversed, more jurisdictions, more borders, more dangers along the way. We will require wisdom and resoluteness to ensure that migrating species can continue their journeying a while longer.

Questions 14-18
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                          if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                        if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN            if there is no information on this

14 Local gulls and migrating arctic terns behave in the same way when offered food.
15 Experts’ definitions of migration tend to vary according to their area of study.
16 Very few experts agree that the movement of aphids can be considered migration.
17 Aphids’ journeys are affected by changes in the light that they perceive.
18 Dingle’s aim is to distinguish between the migratory behaviours of different species

Questions 19-22
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-G, below.
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 19-22 on your answer sheet.

19 According to Dingle, migratory routes are likely to
20 To prepare for migration, animals are likely to
21 During migration, animals are unlikely to
22 Arctic terns illustrate migrating animals’ ability to

A be discouraged by difficulties
B travel on open land where they can look out for predators
C eat more than they need for immediate purposes
D be repeated daily
E ignore distractions
F be governed by the availability of water
G follow a straight line

Questions 23-26
Complete the summary below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet.

The migration of pronghorns
Pronghorns rely on their eyesight and (23)………………………………….to avoid predators. One particular population’s summer habitat is a national park, and their winter home is on the (24)………………………………., where they go to avoid the danger presented by the snow at that time of year. However, their route between these two areas contains three (25)………………………………..One problem is the construction of new homes in a narrow (26)…………………………..of land on the pronghorns’ route.

Preface to ‘How the other half thinks: Adventures in mathematical reasoning’

A Occasionally, in some difficult musical compositions, there are beautiful, but easy parts – parts so simple a beginner could play them. So it is with mathematics as well. There are some discoveries in advanced mathematics that do not depend on specialized knowledge, not even on algebra, geometry, or trigonometry. Instead they may involve, at most, a little arithmetic, such as ‘the sum of two odd numbers is even’, and common sense. Each of the eight chapters in this book illustrates this phenomenon. Anyone can understand every step in the reasoning.

The thinking in each chapter uses at most only elementary arithmetic, and sometimes not even that. Thus all readers will have the chance to participate in a mathematical experience, to appreciate the beauty of mathematics, and to become familiar with its logical, yet intuitive, style of thinking.

B One of my purposes in writing this book is to give readers who haven’t had the opportunity to see and enjoy real mathematics the chance to appreciate the mathematical way of thinking. I want to reveal not only some of the fascinating discoveries, but, more importantly, the reasoning behind them.

In that respect, this book differs from most books on mathematics written for the general public. Some present the lives of colorful mathematicians. Others describe important applications of mathematics. Yet others go into mathematical procedures, but assume that the reader is adept in using algebra.

C I hope this book will help bridge that notorious gap that separates the two cultures: the humanities and the sciences, or should I say the right brain (intuitive) and the left brain (analytical, numerical). As the chapters will illustrate, mathematics is not restricted to the analytical and numerical; intuition plays a significant role. The alleged gap can be narrowed or completely overcome by anyone, in part because each of us is far from using the full capacity of either side of the brain. To illustrate our human potential, I cite a structural engineer who is an artist, an electrical engineer who is an opera singer, an opera singer who published mathematical research, and a mathematician who publishes short stories.

D Other scientists have written books to explain their fields to non-scientists, but have necessarily had to omit the mathematics, although it provides the foundation of their theories. The reader must remain a tantalized spectator rather than an involved participant, since the appropriate language for describing the details in much of science is mathematics, whether the subject is expanding universe, subatomic particles, or chromosomes. Though the broad outline of a scientific theory can be sketched intuitively, when a part of the physical universe is finally understood, its description often looks like a page in a mathematics text.

E Still, the non-mathematical reader can go far in understanding mathematical reasoning. This book presents the details that illustrate the mathematical style of thinking, which involves sustained, step-by-step analysis, experiments, and insights. You will turn these pages much more slowly than when reading a novel or a newspaper. It may help to have a pencil and paper ready to check claims and carry out experiments.

F As I wrote, I kept in mind two types of readers: those who enjoyed mathematics until they were turned off by an unpleasant episode, usually around fifth grade, and mathematics aficionados, who will find much that is new throughout the book.

This book also serves readers who simply want to sharpen their analytical skills. Many careers, such as law and medicine, require extended, precise analysis. Each chapter offers practice in following a sustained and closely argued line of thought. That mathematics can develop this skill is shown by these two testimonials:

G A physician wrote, The discipline of analytical thought processes [in mathematics] prepared me extremely well for medical school. In medicine one is faced with a problem which must be thoroughly analyzed before a solution can be found. The process is similar to doing mathematics.’

A lawyer made the same point, ‘Although I had no background in law – not even one political science course – I did well at one of the best law schools. I attribute much of my success there to having learned, through the study of mathematics, and, in particular, theorems, how to analyze complicated principles. Lawyers who have studied mathematics can master the legal principles in a way that most others cannot.’

I hope you will share my delight in watching as simple, even naive, questions lead to remarkable solutions and purely theoretical discoveries find unanticipated applications.

Questions 27-34
Reading Passage 3 has seven sections, A-G. Which section contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 27-34 on your answer sheet. NB You may use any letter more than once.

27 a reference to books that assume a lack of mathematical knowledge
28 the way in which this is not a typical book about mathematics
29 personal examples of being helped by mathematics
30 examples of people who each had abilities that seemed incompatible
31 mention of different focuses of books about mathematics
32 a contrast between reading this book and reading other kinds of publication
33 a claim that the whole of the book is accessible to everybody
34 a reference to different categories of intended readers of this book

Questions 35-40
Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 35-40 on your answer sheet.

35 Some areas of both music and mathematics are suitable for someone who is a………………………………
36 It is sometimes possible to understand advanced mathematics using no more than a limited knowledge of………………………
37 The writer intends to show that mathematics requires……………………………..thinking, as well as analytical skills.
38 Some books written by…………………………have had to leave out the mathematics that is central to their theories.
39 The writer advises non-mathematical readers to perform……………………………….while reading the book.
40 A lawyer found that studying……………………………..helped even more than other areas of mathematics in the study of law.

Raising the Mary Rose

On 19 July 1545, English and French fleets were engaged in a sea battle off the coast of southern England in the area of water called the Solent, between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight. Among the English vessels was a warship by the name of Mary Rose. Built in Portsmouth some 35 years earlier, she had had a long and successful fighting career, and was a favourite of King Henry VIII. Accounts of what happened to the ship vary: while witnesses agree that she was not hit by the French, some maintain that she was outdated, overladen and sailing too low in the water, others that she was mishandled by undisciplined crew. What is undisputed, however, is that the Mary Rose sank into the Solent that day, taking at least 500 men with her. After the battle, attempts were made to recover the ship, but these failed.

The Mary Rose came to rest on the seabed, lying on her starboard (right) side at an angle of approximately 60 degrees. The hull (the body of the ship) acted as a trap for the sand and mud carried by Solent currents. As a result, the starboard side filled rapidly, leaving the exposed port (left) side to be eroded by marine organisms and mechanical degradation. Because of the way the ship sank, nearly all of the starboard half survived intact. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the entire site became covered with a layer of hard grey clay, which minimised further erosion.

Then, on 16 June 1836, some fishermen in the Solent found that their equipment was caught on an underwater obstruction, which turned out to be the Mary Rose. Diver John Deane happened to be exploring another sunken ship nearby, and the fishermen approached him, asking him to free their gear. Deane dived down, and found the equipment caught on a timber protruding slightly from the seabed. Exploring further, he uncovered several other timbers and a bronze gun. Deane continued diving on the site intermittently until 1840, recovering several more guns, two bows, various timbers, part of a pump and various other small finds.

The Mary Rose then faded into obscurity for another hundred years. But in 1965, military historian and amateur diver Alexander McKee, in conjunction with the British Sub-Aqua Club, initiated a project called ‘Solent Ships’. While on paper this was a plan to examine a number of known wrecks in the Solent, what McKee really hoped for was to find the Mary Rose. Ordinary search techniques proved unsatisfactory, so McKee entered into collaboration with Harold E. Edgerton, professor of electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In 1967, Edgerton’s side-scan sonar systems revealed a large, unusually shaped object, which McKee believed was the Mary Rose.

Further excavations revealed stray pieces of timber and an iron gun. But the climax to the operation came when, on 5 May 1971, part of the ship’s frame was uncovered. McKee and his team now knew for certain that they had found the wreck, but were as yet unaware that it also housed a treasure trove of beautifully preserved artefacts. Interest in the project grew, and in 1979, The Mary Rose Trust was formed, with Prince Charles as its President and Dr Margaret Rule its Archaeological Director. The decision whether or not to salvage the wreck was not an easy one, although an excavation in 1978 had shown that it might be possible to raise the hull. While the original aim was to raise the hull if at all feasible, the operation was not given the go-ahead until January 1982, when all the necessary information was available.

An important factor in trying to salvage the Mary Rose was that the remaining hull was an open shell. This led to an important decision being taken: namely to carry out the lifting operation in three very distinct stages. The hull was attached to a lifting frame via a network of bolts and lifting wires. The problem of the hull being sucked back downwards into the mud was overcome by using 12 hydraulic jacks. These raised it a few centimetres over a period of several days, as the lifting frame rose slowly up its four legs. It was only when the hull was hanging freely from the lifting frame, clear of the seabed and the suction effect of the surrounding mud, that the salvage operation progressed to the second stage. In this stage, the lifting frame was fixed to a hook attached to a crane, and the hull was lifted completely clear of the seabed and transferred underwater into the lifting cradle. This required precise positioning to locate the legs into the ‘stabbing guides’ of the lifting cradle. The lifting cradle was designed to fit the hull using archaeological survey drawings, and was fitted with air bags to provide additional cushioning for the hull’s delicate timber framework. The third and final stage was to lift the entire structure into the air, by which time the hull was also supported from below. Finally, on 11 October 1982, millions of people around the world held their breath as the timber skeleton of the Mary Rose was lifted clear of the water, ready to be returned home to Portsmouth.

Questions 1-4
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                              if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                            if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN                if there is no information on this

1 There is some doubt about what caused the Mary Rose to sink.
2 The Mary Rose was the only ship to sink in the battle of 19 July 1545.
3 Most of one side of the Mary Rose lay undamaged under the sea.
4 Alexander McKee knew that the wreck would contain many valuable historical objects.

Questions 5-8
Look at the following statements (Questions 5-8) and the list of dates below.
Match each statement with the correct date, A-G.
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.

5 A search for the Mary Rose was launched.
6 One person’s exploration of the Mary Rose site stopped.
7 It was agreed that the hull of the Mary Rose should be raised.
8 The site of the Mary Rose was found by chance.

List of dates
A 1836
B 1840
C 1965
D 1967
E 1971
F 1979
G 1982

What destroyed the civilization of Easter Island?

A Easter Island, or Rapu Nui as it is known locally, is home to several hundred ancient human statues – the moai. After this remote Pacific island was settled by the Polynesians, it remained isolated for centuries. All the energy and resources that went into the moai – some of which are ten metres tall and weigh over 7,000 kilos – came from the island itself. Yet when Dutch explorers landed in 1722, they met a Stone Age culture. The moai were carved with stone tools, then transported for many kilometres, without the use of animals or wheels, to massive stone platforms. The identity of the moai builders was in doubt until well into the twentieth century. Thor Heyerdahl, the Norwegian ethnographer and adventurer, thought the statues had been created by pre-Inca peoples from Peru. Bestselling Swiss author Erich von Daniken believed they were built by stranded extraterrestrials. Modern science – linguistic, archaeological and genetic evidence – has definitively proved the moai builders were Polynesians, but not how they moved their creations. Local folklore maintains that the statues walked, while researchers have tended to assume the ancestors dragged the statues somehow, using ropes and logs.

B When the Europeans arrived, Rapa Nui was grassland, with only a few scrawny trees. In the 1970s and 1980s, though, researchers found pollen preserved in lake sediments, which proved the island had been covered in lush palm forests for thousands of years. Only after the Polynesians arrived did those forests disappear. US scientist Jared Diamond believes that the Rapanui people – descendants of Polynesian settlers – wrecked their own environment. They had unfortunately settled on an extremely fragile island – dry, cool, and too remote to be properly fertilised by windblown volcanic ash. When the islanders cleared the forests for firewood and farming, the forests didn’t grow back. As trees became scarce and they could no longer construct wooden canoes for fishing, they ate birds. Soil erosion decreased their crop yields. Before Europeans arrived, the Rapanui had descended into civil war and cannibalism, he maintains. The collapse of their isolated civilisation, Diamond writes, is a ‘worst-case scenario for what may lie ahead of us in our own future’.

C The moai, he thinks, accelerated the self-destruction. Diamond interprets them as power displays by rival chieftains who, trapped on a remote little island, lacked other ways of asserting their dominance. They competed by building ever bigger figures. Diamond thinks they laid the moai on wooden sledges, hauled over log rails, but that required both a lot of wood and a lot of people. To feed the people, even more land had to be cleared. When the wood was gone and civil war began, the islanders began toppling the moai. By the nineteenth century none were standing.

D Archaeologists Terry Hunt of the University of Hawaii and Carl Lipo of California State University agree that Easter Island lost its lush forests and that it was an ‘ecological catastrophe’ – but they believe the islanders themselves weren’t to blame. And the moai certainly weren’t. Archaeological excavations indicate that the Rapanui went to heroic efforts to protect the resources of their wind-lashed, infertile fields. They built thousands of circular stone windbreaks and gardened inside them, and used broken volcanic rocks to keep the soil moist. In short, Hunt and Lipo argue, the prehistoric Rapanui were pioneers of sustainable farming.

E Hunt and Lipo contend that moai-building was an activity that helped keep the peace between islanders. They also believe that moving the moai required few people and no wood, because they were walked upright. On that issue, Hunt and Lipo say, archaeological evidence backs up Rapanui folklore. Recent experiments indicate that as few as 18 people could, with three strong ropes and a bit of practice, easily manoeuvre a 1,000 kg moai replica a few hundred metres. The figures’ fat bellies tilted them forward, and a D-shaped base allowed handlers to roll and rock them side to side.

F Moreover, Hunt and Lipo are convinced that the settlers were not wholly responsible for the loss of the island’s trees. Archaeological finds of nuts from the extinct Easter Island palm show tiny grooves, made by the teeth of Polynesian rats. The rats arrived along with the settlers, and in just a few years, Hunt and Lipo calculate, they would have overrun the island. They would have prevented the reseeding of the slow-growing palm trees and thereby doomed Rapa Nui’s forest, even without the settlers’ campaign of deforestation. No doubt the rats ate birds’ eggs too. Hunt and Lipo also see no evidence that Rapanui civilisation collapsed when the palm forest did. They think its population grew rapidly and then remained more or less stable until the arrival of the Europeans, who introduced deadly diseases to which islanders had no immunity. Then in the nineteenth century slave traders decimated the population, which shrivelled to 111 people by 1877.

G Hunt and Lipo’s vision, therefore, is one of an island populated by peaceful and ingenious moai builders and careful stewards of the land, rather than by reckless destroyers ruining their own environment and society. ‘Rather than a case of abject failure, Rapu Nui is an unlikely story of success’, they claim. Whichever is the case, there are surely some valuable lessons which the world at large can learn from the story of Rapa Nui.

Questions 14-20
Reading Passage 2 has seven paragraphs, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-ix, in boxes 14-20 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings
i Evidence of innovative environment management practices
ii An undisputed answer to a question about the moai
iii The future of the moai statues
iv A theory which supports a local belief
v The future of Easter Island
vi Two opposing views about the Rapanui people
vii Destruction outside the inhabitants’ control
viii How the statues made a situation worse
ix Diminishing food resources

14 Paragraph A
15 Paragraph B
16 Paragraph C
17 Paragraph D
18 Paragraph E
19 Paragraph F
20 Paragraph G

Questions 21-24
Complete the summary below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 21-24 on your answer sheet.

Jared Diamond’s View
Diamond believes that the Polynesian settlers on Rapa Nui destroyed its forests, cutting down its trees for fuel and clearing land for (21)…………………………………Twentieth-century discoveries of pollen prove that Rapu Nui had once been covered in palm forests, which had turned into grassland by the time the Europeans arrived on the island. When the islanders were no longer able to build the (22)…………………………………….they needed to go fishing, they began using the island’s (23)……………………………………..as a food source, according to Diamond. Diamond also claims that the moai were built to show the power of the island’s chieftains, and that the methods of transporting the statues needed not only a great number of people, but also a great deal of (24)…………………………..

Questions 25 and 26
Choose TWO letters, A-E.

Write the correct letters in boxes 25 and 26 on your answer sheet.

On what points do Hunt and Lipo disagree with Diamond?

A the period when the moai were created
B how the moai were transported
C the impact of the moai on Rapanui society
D how the moai were carved
E the origins of the people who made the moai

Neuroaesthetics

An emerging discipline called neuroaesthetics is seeking to bring scientific objectivity to the study of art, and has already given us a better understanding of many masterpieces. The blurred imagery of Impressionist paintings seems to stimulate the brain’s amygdala, for instance. Since the amygdala plays a crucial role in our feelings, that finding might explain why many people find these pieces so moving.

Could the same approach also shed light on abstract twentieth-century pieces, from Mondrian’s geometrical blocks of colour, to Pollock’s seemingly haphazard arrangements of splashed paint on canvas? Sceptics believe that people claim to like such works simply because they are famous. We certainly do have an inclination to follow the crowd. When asked to make simple perceptual decisions such as matching a shape to its rotated image, for example, people often choose a definitively wrong answer if they see others doing the same. It is easy to imagine that this mentality would have even more impact on a fuzzy concept like art appreciation, where there is no right or wrong answer.

Angelina Hawley-Dolan, of Boston College, Massachusetts, responded to this debate by asking volunteers to view pairs of paintings – either the creations of famous abstract artists or the doodles of infants, chimps and elephants. They then had to judge which they preferred. A third of the paintings were given no captions, while many were labelled incorrectly – volunteers might think they were viewing a chimp’s messy brushstrokes when they were actually seeing an acclaimed masterpiece. In each set of trials, volunteers generally preferred the work of renowned artists, even when they believed it was by an animal or a child. It seems that the viewer can sense the artist’s vision in paintings, even if they can’t explain why.

Robert Pepperell, an artist based at Cardiff University, creates ambiguous works that are neither entirely abstract nor clearly representational. In one study, Pepperell and his collaborators asked volunteers to decide how ‘powerful’ they considered an artwork to be, and whether they saw anything familiar in the piece. The longer they took to answer these questions, the more highly they rated the piece under scrutiny, and the greater their neural activity. It would seem that the brain sees these images as puzzles, and the harder it is to decipher the meaning, the more rewarding is the moment of recognition.

And what about artists such as Mondrian, whose paintings consist exclusively of horizontal and vertical lines encasing blocks of colour? Mondrian’s works are deceptively simple, but eye-tracking studies confirm that they are meticulously composed, and that simply rotating a piece radically changes the way we view it. With the originals, volunteers’ eyes tended to stay longer on certain places in the image, but with the altered versions they would flit across a piece more rapidly. As a result, the volunteers considered the altered versions less pleasurable when they later rated the work.

In a similar study, Oshin Vartanian of Toronto University asked volunteers to compare original paintings with ones which he had altered by moving objects around within the frame. He found that almost everyone preferred the original, whether it was a Van Gogh still life or an abstract by Miro. Vartanian also found that changing the composition of the paintings reduced activation in those brain areas linked with meaning and interpretation.

In another experiment, Alex Forsythe of the University of Liverpool analysed the visual intricacy of different pieces of art, and her results suggest that many artists use a key level of detail to please the brain. Too little and the work is boring, but too much results in a kind of ‘perceptual overload’, according to Forsythe. What’s more, appealing pieces both abstract and representational, show signs of ‘fractals’ – repeated motifs recurring in different scales. Fractals are common throughout nature, for example in the shapes of mountain peaks or the branches of trees. It is possible that our visual system, which evolved in the great outdoors, finds it easier to process such patterns.

It is also intriguing that the brain appears to process movement when we see a handwritten letter, as if we are replaying the writer’s moment of creation. This has led some to wonder whether Pollock’s works feel so dynamic because the brain reconstructs the energetic actions the artist used as he painted. This may be down to our brain’s ‘mirror neurons’, which are known to mimic others’ actions. The hypothesis will need to be thoroughly tested, however. It might even be the case that we could use neuroaesthetic studies to understand the longevity of some pieces of artwork. While the fashions of the time might shape what is currently popular, works that are best adapted to our visual system may be the most likely to linger once the trends of previous generations have been forgotten.

It’s still early days for the field of neuroaesthetics – and these studies are probably only a taste of what is to come. It would, however, be foolish to reduce art appreciation to a set of scientific laws. We shouldn’t underestimate the importance of the style of a particular artist, their place in history and the artistic environment of their time. Abstract art offers both a challenge and the freedom to play with different interpretations. In some ways, it’s not so different to science, where we are constantly looking for systems and decoding meaning so that we can view and appreciate the world in a new way.

Questions 27-30
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 27-30 on your answer sheet.

27 In the second paragraph, the writer refers to a shape-matching test in order to illustrate
A the subjective nature of art appreciation
B the reliance of modern art on abstract forms
C our tendency to be influenced by the opinions of others
D a common problem encountered when processing visual data

28 Angelina Hawley-Dolan’s findings indicate that people
A mostly favour works of art which they know well
B hold fixed ideas about what makes a good work of art
C are often misled by their initial expectations of a work of art
D have the ability to perceive the intention behind works of art

29 Results of studies involving Robert Pepperell’s pieces suggest that people
A can appreciate a painting without fully understanding it
B find it satisfying to work out what a painting represents
C vary widely in the time they spend looking at paintings
D generally prefer representational art to abstract art

30 What do the experiments described in the fifth paragraph suggest about the paintings of Mondrian?
A They are more carefully put together than they appear
B They can be interpreted in a number of different ways
C They challenge our assumptions about shape and colour
D They are easier to appreciate than many other abstract works

Questions 31-33
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-H, below.
Write the correct letters, A-H, in boxes 31-33 on your answer sheet.

Art and the Brain
The discipline of neuroaesthetics aims to bring scientific objectivity to the study of art. Neurological studies of the brain, for example, demonstrate the impact which Impressionist paintings have on our (31)…………………………………Alex Forsythe of the University of Liverpool believes many artists give their works the precise degree of (32)……………………………………. which most appeals to the viewer’s brain. She also observes that pleasing works of art often contain certain repeated (33)………………………………….which occur frequently in the natural world.

A interpretation
B complexity
C emotions
D movements
E skill
F layout
G concern
H images

Questions 34-39
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 3?

YES                            if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO                              if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN           if there is no information on this

34 Forsythe’s findings contradicted previous beliefs on the function of ‘fractals’ in art.
35 Certain ideas regarding the link between ‘mirror neurons’ and art appreciation require further verification.
36 People’s taste in paintings depends entirely on the current artistic trends of the period.
37 Scientists should seek to define the precise rules which govern people’s reactions to works of art.
38 Art appreciation should always involve taking into consideration the cultural context in which an artist worked.
39 It is easier to find meaning in the field of science than in that of art.

Question 40
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in box 40 on your answer sheet.

40 What would be the most appropriate subtitle for the article?
A Some scientific insights into how the brain responds to abstract art
B Recent studies focusing on the neural activity of abstract artists
C A comparison of the neurological bases of abstract and representational art
D How brain research has altered public opinion about abstract art

Crop-Growing Skyscrapers

By the year 2050, nearly 80% of the Earth’s population will live in urban centres. Applying the most conservative estimates to current demographic trends, the human population will increase by about three billion people by then. An estimated 109 hectares of new land (about 20% larger than Brazil) will be needed to grow enough food to feed them, if traditional farming methods continue as they are practised today. At present, throughout the world, over 80% of the land that is suitable for raising crops is in use. Historically, some 15% of that has been laid waste by poor management practices. What can be done to ensure enough food for the world’s population to live on?

The concept of indoor farming is not new, since hothouse production of tomatoes and other produce has been in vogue for some time. What is new is the urgent need to scale up this technology to accommodate another three billion people. Many believe an entirely new approach to indoor farming is required, employing cutting-edge technologies. One such proposal is for the ‘Vertical Farm’. The concept is of multi-storey buildings in which food crops are grown in environmentally controlled conditions. Situated in the heart of urban centres, they would drastically reduce the amount of transportation required to bring food to consumers. Vertical farms would need to be efficient, cheap to construct and safe to operate. If successfully implemented, proponents claim, vertical farms offer the promise of urban renewal, sustainable production of a safe and varied food supply (through year-round production of all crops), and the eventual repair of ecosystems that have been sacrificed for horizontal farming.

It took humans 10,000 years to learn how to grow most of the crops we now take for granted. Along the way, we despoiled most of the land we worked, often turning verdant, natural ecozones into semi-arid deserts. Within that same time frame, we evolved into an urban species, in which 60% of the human population now lives vertically in cities. This means that, for the majority, we humans have shelter from the elements, yet we subject our food- bearing plants to the rigours of the great outdoors and can do no more than hope for a good weather year. However, more often than not now, due to a rapidly changing climate, that is not what happens. Massive floods, long droughts, hurricanes and severe monsoons take their toll each year, destroying millions of tons of valuable crops.

The supporters of vertical farming claim many potential advantages for the system. For instance, crops would be produced all year round, as they would be kept in artificially controlled, optimum growing conditions. There would be no weather-related crop failures due to droughts, floods or pests. All the food could be grown organically, eliminating the need for herbicides, pesticides and fertilisers. The system would greatly reduce the incidence of many infectious diseases that are acquired at the agricultural interface. Although the system would consume energy, it would return energy to the grid via methane generation from composting nonedible parts of plants. It would also dramatically reduce fossil fuel use, by cutting out the need for tractors, ploughs and shipping.

A major drawback of vertical farming, however, is that the plants would require artificial light. Without it, those plants nearest the windows would be exposed to more sunlight and grow more quickly, reducing the efficiency of the system. Single-storey greenhouses have the benefit of natural overhead light: even so, many still need artificial lighting. A multi-storey facility with no natural overhead light would require far more. Generating enough light could be prohibitively expensive, unless cheap, renewable energy is available, and this appears to be rather a future aspiration than a likelihood for the near future.

One variation on vertical farming that has been developed is to grow plants in stacked trays that move on rails. Moving the trays allows the plants to get enough sunlight. This system is already in operation, and works well within a single-storey greenhouse with light reaching it from above: it is not certain, however, that it can be made to work without that overhead natural light.

Vertical farming is an attempt to address the undoubted problems that we face in producing enough food for a growing population. At the moment, though, more needs to be done to reduce the detrimental impact it would have on the environment, particularly as regards the use of energy. While it is possible that much of our food will be grown in skyscrapers in future, most experts currently believe it is far more likely that we will simply use the space available on urban rooftops.

Questions 1-7
Complete the sentences below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

Indoor farming
1 Some food plants, including……………………………………, are already grown indoors.
2 Vertical farms would be located in………………………………….., meaning that there would be less need to take them long distances to customers.
3 Vertical farms could use methane from plants and animals to produce………………………..
4 The consumption of…………………………….would be cut because agricultural vehicles would be unnecessary.
5 The fact that vertical farms would need……………………………..light is a disadvantage.
6 One form of vertical farming involves planting in……………………………which are not fixed.
7 The most probable development is that food will be grown on…………………………….in towns and cities.

Questions 8-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                        if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                      if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN           if there is no information on this

8 Methods for predicting the Earth’s population have recently changed.
9 Human beings are responsible for some of the destruction to food-producing land.
10 The crops produced in vertical farms will depend on the season.
11 Some damage to food crops is caused by climate change.
12 Fertilisers will be needed for certain crops in vertical farms.
13 Vertical farming will make plants less likely to be affected by infectious diseases

The Falkirk Wheel

The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland is the world’s first and only rotating boat lift. Opened in 2002, it is central to the ambitious £84.5m Millennium Link project to restore navigability across Scotland by reconnecting the historic waterways of the Forth & Clyde and Union Canals.

The major challenge of the project lay in the fact that the Forth & Clyde Canal is situated 35 metres below the level of the Union Canal. Historically, the two canals had been joined near the town of Falkirk by a sequence of 11 locks – enclosed sections of canal in which the water level could be raised or lowered – that stepped down across a distance of 1.5 km. This had been dismantled in 1933, thereby breaking the link. When the project was launched in 1994, the British Waterways authority were keen to create a dramatic twenty-first- century landmark which would not only be a fitting commemoration of the Millennium, but also a lasting symbol of the economic regeneration of the region.

Numerous ideas were submitted for the project, including concepts ranging from rolling eggs to tilting tanks, from giant see-saws to overhead monorails. The eventual winner was a plan for the huge rotating steel boat lift which was to become The Falkirk Wheel. The unique shape of the structure is claimed to have been inspired by various sources, both manmade and natural, most notably a Celtic double headed axe, but also the vast turning propeller of a ship, the ribcage of a whale or the spine of a fish.

The various parts of The Falkirk Wheel were all constructed and assembled, like one giant toy building set, at Butterley Engineering’s Steelworks in Derbyshire, some 400 km from Falkirk. A team there carefully assembled the 1,200 tonnes of steel, painstakingly fitting the pieces together to an accuracy of just 10 mm to ensure a perfect final fit. In the summer of 2001, the structure was then dismantled and transported on 35 lorries to Falkirk, before all being bolted back together again on the ground, and finally lifted into position in five large sections by crane. The Wheel would need to withstand immense and constantly changing stresses as it rotated, so to make the structure more robust, the steel sections were bolted rather than welded together. Over 45,000 bolt holes were matched with their bolts, and each bolt was hand-tightened.

The Wheel consists of two sets of opposing axe-shaped arms, attached about 25 metres apart to a fixed central spine. Two diametrically opposed water-filled ‘gondolas’, each with a capacity of 360,000 litres, are fitted between the ends of the arms. These gondolas always weigh the same, whether or not they are carrying boats. This is because, according to Archimedes’ principle of displacement, floating objects displace their own weight in water. So when a boat enters a gondola, the amount of water leaving the gondola weighs exactly the same as the boat. This keeps the Wheel balanced and so, despite its enormous mass, it rotates through 180° in five and a half minutes while using very little power. It takes just 1.5 kilowatt-hours (5.4 MJ) of energy to rotate the Wheel – roughly the same as boiling eight small domestic kettles of water.

Boats needing to be lifted up enter the canal basin at the level of the Forth & Clyde Canal and then enter the lower gondola of the Wheel. Two hydraulic steel gates are raised, so as to seal the gondola off from the water in the canal basin. The water between the gates is then pumped out. A hydraulic clamp, which prevents the arms of the Wheel moving while the gondola is docked, is removed, allowing the Wheel to turn. In the central machine room an array often hydraulic motors then begins to rotate the central axle. The axle connects to the outer arms of the Wheel, which begin to rotate at a speed of 1/8 of a revolution per minute. As the wheel rotates, the gondolas are kept in the upright position by a simple gearing system. Two eight-metre-wide cogs orbit a fixed inner cog of the same width, connected by two smaller cogs travelling in the opposite direction to the outer cogs – so ensuring that the gondolas always remain level. When the gondola reaches the top, the boat passes straight onto the aqueduct situated 24 metres above the canal basin.

The remaining 11 metres of lift needed to reach the Union Canal is achieved by means of a pair of locks. The Wheel could not be constructed to elevate boats over the full 35-metre difference between the two canals, owing to the presence of the historically important Antonine Wall, which was built by the Romans in the second century AD. Boats travel under this wall via a tunnel, then through the locks, and finally on to the Union Canal.

Questions 14-19
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?
In boxes 14-19 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                           if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                         if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN              if there is no information on this

14 The Falkirk Wheel has linked the Forth & Clyde Canal with the Union Canal for the first time in their history.
15 There was some opposition to the design of the Falkirk Wheel at first.
16 The Falkirk Wheel was initially put together at the location where its components were manufactured.
17 The Falkirk Wheel is the only boat lift in the world which has steel sections bolted together by hand.
18 The weight of the gondolas varies according to the size of boat being carried.
19 The construction of the Falkirk Wheel site took into account the presence of a nearby ancient monument.

Reducing The Effects Of Climate Change

A Such is our dependence on fossil fuels, and such is the volume of carbon dioxide already released into the atmosphere, that many experts agree that significant global warming is now inevitable. They believe that the best we can do is keep it at a reasonable level, and at present the only serious option for doing this is cutting back on our carbon emissions. But while a few countries are making major strides in this regard, the majority are having great difficulty even stemming the rate of increase, let alone reversing it. Consequently, an increasing number of scientists are beginning to explore the alternative of geo-engineering – a term which generally refers to the intentional large-scale manipulation of the environment. According to its proponents, geo-engineering is the equivalent of a backup generator: if Plan A – reducing our dependency on fossil fuels – fails, we require a Plan B, employing grand schemes to slow down or reverse the process of global warming.

B Geo-engineering has been shown to work, at least on a small localised scale. For decades, May Day parades in Moscow have taken place under clear blue skies, aircraft having deposited dry ice, silver iodide and cement powder to disperse clouds. Many of the schemes now suggested look to do the opposite, and reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the planet. The most eye-catching idea of all is suggested by Professor Roger Angel of the University of Arizona. His scheme would employ up to 16 trillion minute spacecraft, each weighing about one gram, to form a transparent, sunlight-refracting sunshade in an orbit 1.5 million km above the Earth. This could, argues Angel, reduce the amount of light reaching the Earth by two per cent.

C The majority of geo-engineering projects so far carried out – which include planting forests in deserts and depositing iron in the ocean to stimulate the growth of algae – have focused on achieving a general cooling of the Earth. But some look specifically at reversing the melting at the poles, particularly the Arctic. The reasoning is that if you replenish the ice sheets and frozen waters of the high latitudes, more light will be reflected back into space, so reducing the warming of the oceans and atmosphere.

D The concept of releasing aerosol sprays into the stratosphere above the Arctic has been proposed by several scientists. This would involve using sulphur or hydrogen sulphide aerosols so that sulphur dioxide would form clouds, which would, in turn, lead to a global dimming. The idea is modelled on historic volcanic explosions, such as that of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991, which led to a short-term cooling of global temperatures by 0.5°C. Scientists have also scrutinised whether it’s possible to preserve the ice sheets of Greenland with reinforced high-tension cables, preventing icebergs from moving into the sea. Meanwhile in the Russian Arctic, geo-engineering plans include the planting of millions of birch trees. Whereas the regions native evergreen pines shade the snow and absorb radiation, birches would shed their leaves in winter, thus enabling radiation to be reflected by the snow. Re-routing Russian rivers to increase cold water flow to ice-forming areas could also be used to slow down warming, say some climate scientists.

E But will such schemes ever be implemented? Generally speaking, those who are most cautious about geo-engineering are the scientists involved in the research. Angel says that his plan is ‘no substitute for developing renewable energy: the only permanent solution’. And Dr Phil Rasch of the US-based Pacific Northwest National Laboratory is equally guarded about the role of geoengineering: ‘I think all of us agree that if we were to end geo-engineering on a given day, then the planet would return to its pre-engineered condition very rapidly, and probably within ten to twenty years. That’s certainly something to worry about.’

F The US National Center for Atmospheric Research has already suggested that the proposal to inject sulphur into the atmosphere might affect rainfall patterns across the tropics and the Southern Ocean. ‘Geo-engineering plans to inject stratospheric aerosols or to seed clouds would act to cool the planet, and act to increase the extent of sea ice,’ says Rasch. ‘But all the models suggest some impact on the distribution of precipitation.’

G ‘A further risk with geo-engineering projects is that you can “overshoot”,’ says Dr Dan Lunt, from the University of Bristol’s School of Geophysical Sciences, who has studied the likely impacts of the sunshade and aerosol schemes on the climate. ‘You may bring global temperatures back to pre-industrial levels, but the risk is that the poles will still be warmer than they should be and the tropics will be cooler than before industrialisation.’ To avoid such a scenario, Lunt says Angel’s project would have to operate at half strength; all of which reinforces his view that the best option is to avoid the need for geo-engineering altogether.

H “The main reason why geo-engineering is supported by many in the scientific community is that most researchers have little faith in the ability of politicians to agree – and then bring in – the necessary carbon cuts. Even leading conservation organisations see the value of investigating the potential of geo-engineering. According to Dr Martin Sommerkorn, climate change advisor for the World Wildlife Fund’s International Arctic Programme, ‘Human-induced climate change has brought humanity to a position where we shouldn’t exclude thinking thoroughly about this topic and its possibilities.’

Questions 27-29
Reading Passage 3 has eight paragraphs A-H. Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 27-29 on your answer sheet.

27 mention of a geo-engineering project based on an earlier natural phenomenon
28 an example of a successful use of geo-engineering
29 a common definition of geo-engineering

Questions 30-36

Complete the table below. Choose ONE WORD from the passage for each answer.

GEO ENGINEERING PROJECTS

Procedure	Aim
Put a large number of tiny spacecraft into orbit far above Earth	to create a (30)…………….that would reduce the amount of light reaching Earth
Place (31)………………….in the sea	to encourage (32)………………..to form
Release aerosol sprays into the stratosphere	to create (33)…………………that would reduce the amount of light reaching Earth
Fix strong (34)………………….to Greenland ice sheets	to prevent icebergs moving into the sea
Plant trees in Russian Arctic that would lose their leaves in winter	to allow the (35)…………………..to reflect radiation
Change the direction of (36)………………..	to bring more cold water into ice forming areas

Questions 37-40
Look at the following statements (Questions 37-40) and the list of scientists below. Match each statement with the correct scientist, A-D. Write the correct letter, A-D, in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.

37 The effects of geo-engineering may not be long-lasting.
38 Geo-engineering is a topic worth exploring.
39 It may be necessary to limit the effectiveness of geo-engineering projects.
40 Research into non-fossil-based fuels cannot be replaced

List of Scientists

A Roger Angel
B Phil Rasch
C Dan Lunt
D Martin Sommerkorn

Research using twins

To biomedical researchers all over the world, twins offer a precious opportunity to untangle the influence of genes and the environment – of nature and nurture. Because identical twins come from a single fertilized egg that splits into two, they share virtually the same genetic code. Any differences between them – one twin having younger looking skin, for example – must be due to environmental factors such as less time spent in the sun.

Alternatively, by comparing the experiences of identical twins with those of fraternal twins, who come from separate eggs and share on average half their DNA, researchers can quantify the extent to which our genes affect our lives. If identical twins are more similar to each other with respect to an ailment than fraternal twins are, then vulnerability to the disease must be rooted at least in part in heredity.

These two lines of research – studying the differences between identical twins to pinpoint the influence of environment, and comparing identical twins with fraternal ones to measure the role of inheritance – have been crucial to understanding the interplay of nature and nurture in determining our personalities, behavior, and vulnerability to disease.

The idea of using twins to measure the influence of heredity dates back to 1875, when the English scientist Francis Galton first suggested the approach (and coined the phrase ‘nature and nurture’). But twin studies took a surprising twist in the 1980s, with the arrival of studies into identical twins who had been separated at birth and reunited as adults. Over two decades 137 sets of twins eventually visited Thomas Bouchard’s lab in what became known as the Minnesota Study of -‘Twins Reared Apart. Numerous tests were carried out on the twins, and they were each asked more than 15,000 questions.

Bouchard and his colleagues used this mountain of data to identify how far twins were affected by their genetic makeup. The key to their approach was a statistical concept called heritability. In broad terms, the heritability of a trait measures the extent to which differences among members of a population can be explained by differences in their genetics. And wherever Bouchard and other scientists looked, it seemed, they found the invisible hand of genetic influence helping to shape our lives.

Lately, however, twin studies have helped lead scientists to a radical new conclusion: that nature and nurture are not the only elemental forces at work. According to a recent field called epigenetics, there is a third factor also in play, one that in some cases serves as a bridge between the environment and our genes, and in others operates on its own to shape who we are.

Epigenetic processes are chemical reactions tied to neither nature nor nurture but representing what researchers have called a ‘third component’. These reactions influence how our genetic code is expressed: how each gene is strengthened or weakened, even turned on or off, to build our bones, brains and all the other parts of our bodies.
If you think of our DNA as an immense piano keyboard and our genes as the keys – each key symbolizing a segment of DNA responsible for a particular note, or trait, and all the keys combining to make us who we are – then epigenetic processes determine when and how each key can be struck, changing the tune being played.

One way the study of epigenetics is revolutionizing our understanding of biology is by revealing a mechanism by which the environment directly impacts on genes. Studies of animals, for example, have shown that when a rat experiences stress during pregnancy, it can cause epigenetic changes in a fetus that lead to behavioral problems as the rodent grows up. Other epigenetic processes appear to occur randomly, while others are normal, such as those that guide embryonic cells as they become heart, brain, or liver cells, for example.

Geneticist Danielle Reed has worked with many twins over the years and thought deeply about what twin studies have taught us. ‘It’s very clear when you look at twins that much of what they share is hardwired,’ she says. ‘Many things about them are absolutely the same and unalterable. But it’s also clear, when you get to know them, that other things about them are different. Epigenetics is the origin of a lot of those differences, in my view.’

Reed credits Thomas Bouchard’s work for today’s surge in twin studies. ‘He was the trailblazer,’ she says. ‘We forget that 50 years ago things like heart disease were thought to be caused entirely by lifestyle. Schizophrenia was thought to be due to poor mothering. Twin studies have allowed us to be more reflective about what people are actually born with and what’s caused by experience.’

Having said that, Reed adds, the latest work in epigenetics promises to take our understanding even further. ‘What I like to say is that nature writes some things in pencil and some things in pen,’ she says. Things written in pen you can’t change. That’s DNA. But things written in pencil you can. That’s epigenetics. Now that we’re actually able to look at the DNA and see where the pencil writings are, it’s sort of a whole new world.’

Questions 1-4
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1?
In boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                            if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                          if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN              if there is no information on this

1 There may be genetic causes for the differences in how young the skin of identical twins looks.
2 Twins are at greater risk of developing certain illnesses than non-twins.
3 Bouchard advertised in newspapers for twins who had been separated at birth.
4 Epigenetic processes are different from both genetic and environmental processes.

Questions 5-9
Look at the following statements (Questions 5-9) and the list of researchers below. Match each statement with the correct researcher, A, B or C. Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 5-9 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.

List of Researchers
A Francis Galton
B Thomas Bouchard
C Danielle Reed

5 invented a term used to distinguish two factors affecting human characteristics
6 expressed the view that the study of epigenetics will increase our knowledge
7 developed a mathematical method of measuring genetic influences
8 pioneered research into genetics using twins
9 carried out research into twins who had lived apart

Questions 10-13
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-F, below.
Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.

Epigenetic processes
In epigenetic processes, (10)…………………………..influence the activity of our genes, for example in creating our internal (11)………………………….The study of epigenetic processes is uncovering a way in which our genes can be affected by our (12)………………………………One example is that if a pregnant rat suffers stress, the new-born rat may later show problems in its (13)………………………….

A. Nurture
B. Organs
C. Code
D. Chemicals
E. Environment
F. Behaviour

An introduction to film sound

Though we might think of film as an essentially visual experience, we really cannot afford to underestimate the importance of film sound. A meaningful sound track is often as complicated as the image on the screen, and is ultimately just as much the responsibility of the director. The entire sound track consists of three essential ingredients: the human voice, sound effects and music. These three tracks must be mixed and balanced so as to produce the necessary emphases which in turn create desired effects. Topics which essentially refer to the three previously mentioned tracks are discussed below. They include dialogue, synchronous and asynchronous sound effects, and music.

Let us start with dialogue. As is the case with stage drama, dialogue serves to tell the story and expresses feelings and motivations of characters as well. Often with film characterization the audience perceives little or no difference between the character and the actor. Thus, for example, the actor Humphrey Bogart is the character Sam Spade; film personality and life personality seem to merge. Perhaps this is because the very texture of a performer’s voice supplies an element of character.

When voice textures fit the performer’s physiognomy and gestures, a whole and very realistic persona emerges. The viewer sees not an actor working at his craft, but another human being struggling with life. It is interesting to note that how dialogue is used and the very amount of dialogue used varies widely among films. For example, in the highly successful science-fiction film 2001, little dialogue was evident, and most of it was banal and of little intrinsic interest. In this way the film-maker was able to portray what Thomas Sobochack and Vivian Sobochack call, in An Introduction to Film, the ‘inadequacy of human responses when compared with the magnificent technology created by man and the visual beauties of the universe’.

The comedy Bringing Up Baby, on the other hand, presents practically non-stop dialogue delivered at breakneck speed. This use of dialogue underscores not only the dizzy quality of the character played by Katherine Hepburn, but also the absurdity of the film itself and thus its humor. The audience is bounced from gag to gag and conversation to conversation; there is no time for audience reflection. The audience is caught up in a whirlwind of activity in simply managing to follow the plot. This film presents pure escapism – largely due to its frenetic dialogue.

Synchronous sound effects are those sounds which are synchronized or matched with what is viewed. For example, if the film portrays a character playing the piano, the sounds of the piano are projected. Synchronous sounds contribute to the realism of film and also help to create a particular atmosphere. For example, the ‘click’ of a door being opened may simply serve to convince the audience that the image portrayed is real, and the audience may only subconsciously note the expected sound. However, if the ‘click’ of an opening door is part of an ominous action such as a burglary, the sound mixer may call attention to the ‘click’ with an increase in volume; this helps to engage the audience in a moment of suspense.

Asynchronous sound effects, on the other hand, are not matched with a visible source of the sound on screen. Such sounds are included so as to provide an appropriate emotional nuance, and they may also add to the realism of the film. For example, a film-maker might opt to include the background sound of an ambulance’s siren while the foreground sound and image portrays an arguing couple. The asynchronous ambulance siren underscores the psychic injury incurred in the argument; at the same time the noise of the siren adds to the realism of the film by acknowledging the film’s city setting.

We are probably all familiar with background music in films, which has become so ubiquitous as to be noticeable in its absence. We are aware that it is used to add emotion and rhythm. Usually not meant to be noticeable, it often provides a tone or an emotional attitude toward the story and/or the characters depicted. In addition, background music often foreshadows a change in mood. For example, dissonant music may be used in film to indicate an approaching (but not yet visible) menace or disaster.

Background music may aid viewer understanding by linking scenes. For example, a particular musical theme associated with an individual character or situation may be repeated at various points in a film in order to remind the audience of salient motives or ideas.

Film sound comprises conventions and innovations. We have come to expect an acceleration of music during car chases and creaky doors in horror films. Yet, it is important to note as well that sound is often brilliantly conceived. The effects of sound are often largely subtle and often are noted by only our subconscious minds. We need to foster an awareness of film sound as well as film space so as to truly appreciate an art form that sprang to life during the twentieth century – the modern film.

Questions 14-18
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 14-18 on your answer sheet.

14 In the first paragraph, the writer makes a point that
A the director should plan the sound track at an early stage in filming.
B it would be wrong to overlook the contribution of sound to the artistry of films.
C the music industry can have a beneficial influence on sound in film.
D it is important for those working on the sound in a film to have sole responsibility for it.

15 One reason that the writer refers to Humphrey Bogart is to exemplify
A the importance of the actor and the character appearing to have similar personalities.
B the audience’s wish that actors are visually appropriate for their roles.
C the value of the actor having had similar feelings to the character.
D the audience’s preference for dialogue to be as authentic as possible.

16 In the third paragraph, the writer suggests that
A audiences are likely to be critical of film dialogue that does not reflect their own experience.
B film dialogue that appears to be dull may have a specific purpose.
C filmmakers vary considerably in the skill with which they handle dialogue.
D the most successful films are those with dialogue of a high quality.

17 What does the writer suggest about Bringing Up Baby
A The plot suffers from the filmmaker’s wish to focus on humorous dialogue.
B The dialogue helps to make it one of the best comedy films ever produced.
C There is a mismatch between the speed of the dialogue and the speed of actions.
D The nature of the dialogue emphasises key elements of the film.

18 The writer refers to the ‘click’ of a door to make the point that realistic sounds
A are often used to give the audience a false impression of events in the film.
B may be interpreted in different ways by different members of the audience.
C may be modified in order to manipulate the audience’s response to the film.
D tend to be more significant in films presenting realistic situations.

Questions 19-23
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 2?

TRUE                           if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                         if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN              if there is no information on this

19 Audiences are likely to be surprised if a film lacks background music.
20 Background music may anticipate a development in a film.
21 Background music has more effect on some people than on others.
22 Background music may help the audience to make certain connections within the film.
23 Audiences tend to be aware of how the background music is affecting them.

Questions 24-26
Complete each sentence with the correct ending, A-E, below.

24 The audience’s response to different parts of a film can be controlled
25 The feelings and motivations of characters become clear
26 A character seems to be a real person rather than an actor

A. when the audience listens to the dialogue
B. if the film reflects the audience’s own concerns
C. if voice, sound and music are combined appropriately
D. when the director is aware of how the audience will respond
E. when the actor’s appearance, voice and moves are consistent with each other

This Marvelous Invention

A Of all mankind’s manifold creations, language must take pride of place. Other inventions – the wheel, agriculture, sliced bread – may have transformed our material existence, but the advent of language is what made us human. Compared to language, all other inventions pale in significance, since everything we have ever achieved depends on language and originates from it. Without language, we could never have embarked on our ascent to unparalleled power over all other animals, and even over nature itself.

B But language is foremost not just because it came first. In its own right it is a tool of extraordinary sophistication, yet based on an idea of ingenious simplicity: ‘this marvellous invention of composing out of twenty-five or thirty sounds that infinite variety of expressions which, whilst having in themselves no likeness to what is in our mind, allow us to disclose to others its whole secret, and to make known to those who cannot penetrate it all that we imagine, and all the various stirrings of our soul’. This was how, in 1660, the renowned French grammarians of the Port-Royal abbey near Versailles distilled the essence of language, and no one since has celebrated more eloquently the magnitude of its achievement. Even so, there is just one flaw in all these hymns of praise, for the homage to languages unique accomplishment conceals a simple yet critical incongruity. Language is mankinds greatest invention – except, of course, that it was never invented. This apparent paradox is at the core of our fascination with language, and it holds many of its secrets.

C Language often seems so skillfully drafted that one can hardly imagine it as anything other than the perfected handiwork of a master craftsman. How else could this instrument make so much out of barely three dozen measly morsels of sound? In themselves, these configurations of mouth – p,f,b,v,t,d,k,g,s,h,a,e and so on – amount to nothing more than a few haphazard spits and splutters, random noises with no meaning, no ability to express, no power to explain. But run them through the cogs and wheels of the language machine, let it arrange them in some very special orders, and there is nothing that these meaningless streams of air cannot do: from sighing the interminable boredom of existence to unravelling the fundamental order of the universe.

D The most extraordinary thing about language, however, is that one doesn’t have to be a genius to set its wheels in motion. The language machine allows just about everybody – from pre-modern foragers in the subtropical savannah, to post-modern philosophers in the suburban sprawl – to tie these meaningless sounds together into an infinite variety of subtle senses, and all apparently without the slightest exertion. Yet it is precisely this deceptive ease which makes language a victim of its own success, since in everyday life its triumphs are usually taken for granted. The wheels of language run so smoothly that one rarely bothers to stop and think about all the resourcefulness and expertise that must have gone into making it tick. Language conceals art.

E Often, it is only the estrangement of foreign tongues, with their many exotic and outlandish features, that brings home the wonder of languages design. One of the showiest stunts that some languages can pull off is an ability to build up words of breath-breaking length, and thus express in one word what English takes a whole sentence to say. The Turkish word fehirliliftiremediklerimizdensiniz, to take one example, means nothing less than ‘you are one of those whom we can’t turn into a town-dweller’. (In case you were wondering, this monstrosity really is one word, not merely many different words squashed together – most of its components cannot even stand up on their own.)

F And if that sounds like some one-off freak, then consider Sumerian, the language spoken on the banks of the Euphrates some 5,000 years ago by the people who invented writing and thus enabled the documentation of history. A Sumerian word like munintuma’a (‘when he had made it suitable for her’) might seem rather trim compared to the Turkish colossus above. What is so impressive about it, however, is not its lengthiness but rather the reverse – the thrifty compactness of its construction. The word is made up of different slots, each corresponding to a particular portion of meaning. This sleek design allows single sounds to convey useful information, and in fact even the absence of a sound has been enlisted to express something specific. If you were to ask which bit in the Sumerian word corresponds to the pronoun ‘it’ in the English translation ‘when he had made it suitable for her’, then the answer would have to be nothing. Mind you, a very particular kind of nothing: the nothing that stands in the empty slot in the middle. The technology is so fine-tuned then that even a non-sound, when carefully placed in a particular position, has been invested with a specific function. Who could possibly have come up with such a nifty contraption?

Questions 27-32
Reading Passage 3 has six paragraphs, A-F.
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A-F from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-vii, in boxes 27-32 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings
i Differences between languages highlight their impressiveness
ii The way in which a few sounds are organised to convey a huge range of meaning
iii Why the sounds used in different languages are not identical
iv Apparently incompatible characteristics of language
v Even silence can be meaningful
vi Why language is the most important invention of all
vii The universal ability to use language

27 Paragraph A
28 Paragraph B
29 Paragraph C
30 Paragraph D
31 Paragraph E
32 Paragraph F

Questions 33-36
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-G, below.
Write the correct letter, A-G, in boxes 33-36 on your answer sheet.

The importance of language
The wheel is one invention that has had a major impact on (33)…………………………….aspects of life, but no impact has been as (34)……………………………………as that of language. Language is very (35)…………………………………., yet composed of just a small number of sounds. Language appears to be (36)……………………………….to use. However its sophistication is often overlooked.

A. Difficult
B. Complex
C. Original
D. Admired
E. Material
F. Easy
G. Fundamental

Questions 37-40
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 3? In boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet, write

YES                         if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO                           if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN        if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this

37 Human beings might have achieved their present position without language.
38 The Port-Royal grammarians did justice to the nature of language.
39 A complex idea can be explained more clearly in a sentence than in a single word.
40 The Sumerians were responsible for starting the recording of events.

Music Clubs

A White hay Youth Music is intended for anyone aged between 6 and 14 who is keen to perform in public. The club is limited to 30 members at any time, and we operate a waiting list for membership. Two concerts are performed every year, and every member takes part. Members must have reached at least an intermediate standard on their instrument. The group meets in the Jubilee Hall on Wednesday evenings during term time for rehearsals and for workshops in which members learn how to improve their playing.

B Whitehay Music Club brings together music lovers from around the district, for enjoyable evenings of food and music. We meet monthly in members’ homes, and during the evening we have a buffet meal and listen to recordings of both’ well-known and not so well-known music. The music is preceded by a brief talk providing background information about the composers and the music. Every few months we organise a coach trip to a musical event within a radius of 50 km.

C Whitehay Philharmonic is an amateur orchestra, founded in 1954, Two or three times a year, it performs a wide range of music to large and appreciative audiences from the area, in the town’s Jubilee Hall. New members are always welcome, and can take part in rehearsals, although there may not be room for everyone to perform in the concerts. Because the orchestra only partly finances its performances through ticket sales, members with marketing experience are particularly welcome, in order to build sales.

D Whitehay Music Society is primarily a fundraising group that organises a range of money-making activities — from street collections to seeking sponsorship from local businesses. The money raised is used to support professional musicians if, for example, illness prevents them from earning a living. As a member, you will receive a monthly newsletter describing our work, and containing details of concerts, operas and other performances, both locally and nationally. Everybody is welcome to join the society: children are particularly welcome, along with their parents.

Questions 1-8
Look at the four advertisements for music clubs in a town called Whitehay, A-D, on below page .
For which club are the following statements true?
Write the correct letter, A-D, in boxes 1—8 on your answer sheet.

1. It needs members who can find ways of increasing audience numbers.
2. All its members perform in club concerts.
3. It distributes information about musical events to its members.
4. It requires its members to have reached a certain level as performers.
5. One of its aims is to introduce its members to music they may not be familiar with.6. It helps children to develop their musical skills.
7. Its performances are popular with local people.
8. It helps people who are in financial need.

Read the text below and answer Questions 9-14.

Biological Research Insititute

Welcome to the Biological Research Institute campus. We hope that your visit will be enjoyable and interesting. Please read the information below and comply with the instructions given.

On arrival, you should report to the Reception building by the main entrance gate, where you will be issued with a pass. This must be visible at all times during your visit to the campus.

If you are driving a vehicle, please inform Reception. They will contact Security, who will identify the area where you should park your car. Please ensure that you park it in the designated area. You must keep to the campus speed limit (10 mph) at all times. Cars are parked at the owners risk.
For your own safety, please follow the instructions displayed on noticeboards around the campus, as well as all instructions issued by authorised personnel. Do not enter any restricted areas or touch any machinery or other equipment unless authorised. Visitors must be accompanied by their host at all times whilst on the campus.

Entry into certain areas requires the wearing of special clothing or equipment. This will be provided for you by your host, who will advise you on the appropriate protection for the areas you visit.

Unless your host has previously obtained permission from the Institute management, photography, whether still or video, is not permitted in any part of the campus.

Children under the age of 16 must be accompanied by an adult at all times, and should only be brought on campus if the Institute management has previously agreed to this. No nursery facilities are available for visiting children.

In the event of an accident, call 3333 and request the assistance of site first-aid personnel.

Questions 9-14
Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 9-14 on your answer sheet.

9. If you come by car,…………………………………will tell you where to park it.
10. Advice on……………………………………can be seen on noticeboards.
11. You will need to obtain authorisation before touching equipment such as……………………………………….
12. Permission from the management is required if you want to do any kind of………………………………….
13. The Institute does not provide a…………………………………………for children visiting the campus
14. You should phone 3333 if any kind of………………………………….occurs.

SECTION 2 
Read the text below and answer Questions 15-20.

Negotiating A Better Salary Package For Your New Job

If you make it through the recruitment interview, a job offer may be just around the corner and you face having to talk about the nitty-gritty: your financial value.

Although many graduate training schemes have set starting salaries, there are loads of other jobs where you’ll need to exercise your negotiating skills. If you’re offered a job, it’s because the organisation sees you as a valuable asset and you should try to set your level of remuneration accordingly.

There are no general rules about how and when to conduct your negotiation but being sensitive to the culture of the organisation is essential. There are also some practical steps you can take to position yourself sensibly. Familiarise yourself with the company itself, as well as the range of salaries on offer. Doing careful research in this way prior to starting negotiations is very valuable. You can look at the range of packages offered for comparable jobs in adverts on the internet, or ask for advice from people you know professionally or personally. You could also approach a local Training and Enterprise Council. Finally, if you’re a member of a union, they will have information on acceptable salary ranges for your profession.

If the salary offered is less than you’d hoped for, you could negotiate an early pay review instead, say after the first six months. Ensure that the criteria are clearly set out though, and that they’re included in your contract.

Make sure you check out the salary package, not just the number of zeroes on your payslip. You may find that the total package of pay and benefits raises the worth of the salary to an acceptable level. For instance, you may be offered private health cover, a non-contributory pension, a car to use for work purposes and/or significant bonuses. When bonuses are mentioned, you may want to discuss the basis on which they’re paid, so that you’re absolutely clear about the terms and conditions attached. When negotiating, be persuasive and consistent in your arguments but be prepared to agree to a compromise if you really want the job.
If your negotiations are successful, ask for the agreed terms and conditions to be confirmed in writing ASAP.

Questions 15-20
Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 15-20 on your answer sheet.

15. When negotiating a salary, potential employees should take advantage of the company’s view of them as a useful…………………………
16. When negotiating a salary it is important to be aware of the company’s particular …………………………………..
17. Some people use the……………………………….to monitor salaries offered for similar positions.
18. People who belong to a………………………………can ask for recommendations on what is the norm for payment in their field.
19. Some people try to arrange for a…………………………………..of their salary to be carried out after an initial period.
20. It is important to be willing to accept a……………………………………if the negotiations are getting nowhere.

Read the text on below pages and answer Questions 21-27.

How To Run A Successful Project

A project manager’s main task is to bring a particular project to completion, both on time and within budget. There are many factors that can cause a project to veer off its tracks, but steps can be taken to ensure that your project experiences as little disruption as possible.

1. Prepare the framework

If you get everything down in writing at the beginning of the project, you have an excellent foundation to build upon. Change is inevitable, but you have to maintain control. This is critical to avoid problems of ‘scope creep’, which is when the company paying for the project asks for ‘just one more little thing’ repeatedly, until the project becomes unmanageable.

2. Select the team

Gather your human resources, and make sure that their skills align with their roles. This is an important first step: if you assign the wrong person to a task, you are reducing your chances of success.

Make sure each team member is clear on what is expected from them and when. Encourage them to ask questions to clarify anything that may be uncertain, and to always come to you whenever something seems to be out of place or going wrong. Clear communication is critical.

Make sure the whole team and the client company grasp the project’s limitations in terms of its achievable outcomes. You can finish a task successfully and on time as long as expectations are reasonable.

3. Staying on track

How can you know if your project is going to be successful if you don’t have any way of measuring success? You will need interim milestones, especially for a long-term project, so that you can determine if you are staying on track or straying from the project’s goals.

4. Manage project risks

Hopefully you have defined the more likely risks up front during the project preparation, so you should now put contingency plans in place for certain occurrences. If you can see when a risk is imminent, you can take preventive action to avoid it, but be ready to halt a project if the risk becomes unacceptable.

5. Evaluate the project
Once a project has been completed, it’s important to write a report, even if it is only for internal purposes. You can pinpoint what went right or wrong, determine what could have been done differently, and establish the best practices for use in future undertakings.

Questions 21-27
Complete the flow-chart below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the text for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 21-27 on your answer sheet.

How to run a successful project
Bear in mind that your aim should be to keep to both the agreed deadline and the (21)………………….for the project
Fix the details at the start to prevent what is called (22)…………………- the client asking for more and more
Choose the team members wisely so that their (23)…………………..match the duties you want them to take on
Promote good (24)…………………….at all times so everyone knows what you require of them
Make sure (25)……………………are set so you can check whether the project is running to schedule
Prepare (26)……………………which can be activated if things go wrong on the project
Once the project is over produce a (27)………………….outlining its strengths and weaknesses for future reference

SECTION 3 
Read the text on below page and answer Questions 28-40.

Mass Appeal Of The Mantra Rays

A I am underwater, face to face with a large flat fish which I recognise immediately as being a manta ray. For an instant I look straight into its gaping mouth and see the row of small, flattened teeth in its lower jaw. Close on its tail comes another manta ray, and another and another. The manta rays are unaffected by my being there, cruising past in a leisurely fashion without seeming to expend any great effort.

B From above, the manta rays are great black silhouettes that fishermen called ‘devil fish’, because of the curious horn-like fins hanging down near their mouths. But looking into their eyes you get a sense of their peaceful nature. Unlike stingrays, mantas don’t have venomous spines in their tails, and unlike many fish species they seem to enjoy human company. Once, over-enthusiastically, I swim towards a manta. I am just a few inches away when it senses me. To my surprise, the whole fish twitches in alarm and shoots off, perhaps fearing that I will touch it. I feel ashamed to have given it a fright.

C I have come to Hanifaru, a small lagoon next to an uninhabited island in the Maldives, especially to see manta rays. These great harmless creatures congregate here during the south-west monsoons between May and November and, if the tides and winds are right, enter a shallow cul-de-sac in the reef to hunt for plankton, their main source of nutrition. On certain days the bay can attract more than 100 mantas. I have seen many manta rays on dives around the world, though not in these numbers.

D Guy Stevens is my guide, a British marine biologist who has been studying the mantas for the past five years. Based at the nearby Four Seasons resort, he has identified more than 2,000 individual manta rays, photographing and cataloguing them according to their distinctive skin patterns. Each day we make the 40-minute boat journey from the resort to Hanifaru. Feeding events, as Guy calls them, are never guaranteed, but, during the season, hotel guests can sign up for ‘manta alerts’. If Guy and his research assistants spot significant manta activity, the guests will be brought by fast speedboat to the lagoon to snorkel. When feeding, the mantas of Hanifaru tend to stay near the surface, making them accessible to snorkellers just as much as divers. They seem not to mind the human competition in this quite small space, and indeed they are often joined by other rays and even giant whale sharks, which feed on the same plankton.

E Word among the diving community about the possibility of finding a mass of manta rays at Hanifaru has slowly been spreading over the past year. Outside the shallow lagoon I can see five large safari boats – live-aboard cruisers that take divers around the best underwater sites in the Maldives. It is something that Guy has been monitoring closely. ‘Word is out that Hanifaru is a top manta spot,’ he explains, ‘and although the government has declared the bay a “protected area”, we still don’t have any regulations in force to limit the number of people in the water at any one time.’

F During my stay, the resort received a visit from the then-president of the Maldives, Mohamed Nasheed. Since coming to power in 2008, he had made his interest in the marine environment and concerns about climate change well known. In 2009 he held an underwater cabinet meeting, urging other world leaders to act decisively to combat climate change. The protection of wildlife areas such as Hanifaru was clearly one of his objectives, and I asked him why he took such an interest. ‘Maldivians have lived with the reefs and their fish life since long before there were tourists,’ he said. ‘And while tourist dollars are good for our country, the sea and its produce are even more vital to my people. I have to balance what tourists want to see with preserving the marine environment – and in some cases, like Hanifaru, those objectives coincide.’

G On several dives I am lucky enough to get close to the mantas, sometimes at underwater ‘cleaning stations’. Here, the mantas come in small numbers, or individually, to pause above a coral outcrop and wait while small fish pick at their skin, removing parasites. Adapted for fast swimming with their flattened bodies, they can accelerate rapidly with a twitch of their wings. They gaze at human swimmers with a kind of knowing calm, something people often remark on when they try to capture the emotion they experience after seeing them. The manta rays have the biggest brain of any fish,’ Guy explains, ‘and some manta researchers are convinced that mantas can recognise individual people underwater.’

H I return to the lagoon over the course of several days and learn more from Guy about his hopes for the future. ‘People can visit this place, but I want to be sure that they don’t harass the mantas by touching them or crowding them out while they’re feeding. We’re working to get a full-time ranger station and some kind of permit system to limit the number of boats that can enter the lagoon each day.’

Questions 28-30
The text on below page has 8 paragraphs, A-H. Which paragraph mentions the following?
Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 28-30 on your answer sheet.

28 a record that is being kept of manta rays in the area
29 something that the writer regrets
30 the reason for the writer’s visit

Questions 31-36
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text on below page?
In boxes 31-36 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                            if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                          if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN               if there is no information on this

31 It is difficult to distinguish one manta ray from another.
32 For hotel guests, viewing manta rays feeding has to be arranged at short notice.
33 The manta rays appear to object to the presence of people in the water while they are feeding.
34 Guy Stevens is concerned about the increasing interest in Hanifaru.
35 Mohamed Nasheed succeeded in persuading certain other countries to take steps to protect the environment.
36 A procedure has now been established to control the number of visitors.

Questions 37-40
Complete the summary below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.

The manta ray

During certain times of year, depending on the weather conditions and the tides, manta rays collect to look for 37………………………to feed on. They eat the same food as other species, such as giant whale sharks. As for keeping clean, they are kept free from 38………………………by smaller fish.

Manta rays have certain characteristics which make them good swimmers; they use their 39……………………to get up speed and they have flattened bodies, which help them to move quickly through the water. The nature of the manta’s 40………………………is of particular interest to scientists.

SECTION 1 

Read the text below and answer Questions 1-7

Evening Courses

A Cooking for today
These are classes for those of you who can already make basic meal by keeping strictly to a simple recipe, but who would now like to use your imagination as well. We ‘ll learn how to make great family meals , discovering how to develop basic recipes into personal creations, with a few tricks and tips to help you become more confident.

B Entertaining the easy way
This course has plenty of ideas and tips for special occasions that you can enjoy preparing, love eating and be proud to provide. The recipes are adaptable to needs and lifestyle, building on your current skills and aimed at developing your own cooking style.

C Cooking for the family
Keen to make better food for your kids? This course is for parents who want to learn how to make fun food with the aim of showing their kids how to cook later at home. We’ll learn plenty of tasty tips for snacks and picnics, family favourites, and dishes with fresh fruit and vegetables so that you and your family can get really fit and well and enjoy your food.

D Jewellery making
This course aims enable students to create silver jewellery. You first project will be make a silver ring and then you will have an opportunity to create another piece of your design. This is an introductory course. Base metals are supplied free. Please wear suitable workshop clothing and bring a notebook and pen.

E Photography
This course will allow you to take full advantage of your digital camera. Covering portrait, landscape and still-life photography, the classes will include effective use of lenses and lighting. To really benefit from the course, learners should have time to read ahead between sessions.

F Creative writing
Come and learn how to have fun with stories and other kinds of creative writing We will try out some new ideas and techniques for improving style and waking up the imagination , Writers who have not taken the foundation class will also be able to join , Provided they already have some experience of the subject.

Questions 1-7
Look at the six advertisements for evening courses, A-F
For which evening course are the following statements true?
Write the correct letter, A-F, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use letter more than once.

1. After taking this course, participants will be able to teach their skill to others.
2. Participants will be expected to prepare at home for each class.
3. Certain materials will be included in the course fee.
4. This course aims to teach people to prepare meals for guests.
5. This course will help participants to make the best use of a certain item.
6. This course is for people who want to do more than follow instructions.
7. Following this course should improve participants health.

Read the text and answer Questions 6-14.

The Bike Foundry

The Bike Foundry aims to promote cycling, and to make an environmentally-friendly means of transport and leisure available to as many people as we can.

Our Bikes
All our bikes are hand-restored by our team and come with a three month’s guarantee. We stock bikes to suit different needs, at affordable prices. We gratefully accept donations of unwanted bikes.

Training
We offer maintenance and cycle training to schools and small groups on their own premises. Additionally we provide training to individuals and groups in our workshops.

Maintenance Training
Bike Basics
This is a three-hour course which will teach you everything you need to know to keep on top of simple maintenance issues like looking after brakes and gears and how to repair a puncture. By the end of the course you’ll know how to take good care of your bike.

Home Mechanics
This twelve-hour course consists of teaching you how to use specialist tools and how to fit compatible replacement parts. It’s aimed at those who have completed Bike Basics or have some prior knowledge.

Courses are run regularly for groups of up to four trainees. We use professional mechanics’ tools and employ experienced staff. Most importantly, we have tea- and coffee-making facilities and a fridge where participants can keep their sandwiches, etc. Unfortunately our training room is up a flight of stairs.

For £10 a year you can join our Tool Club. Membership gives you access to our workshop for one evening a week. If you want to repair your bike and know how to fix it, but lack specialist tools, then join our club. There’s a range of reference manuals available and a mechanic to offer advice.

Cycling Training
Our qualified instructors can teach you how to ride your bike, whether you have had prior experience or not. If you’re already riding and would like to build your confidence, we can teach you safe techniques to negotiate traffic.

Booking Information
To book a place, email training@bikefoundry.org
We ask for a 50% deposit to confirm your place, refundable up to seven days before the course.

Questions 8-14
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the text below?
In boxes 8-14 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE                            if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE                          if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN               if there is no information on this

8. The Bike Foundry sells only second-hand bicycles.
9. All the training sessions are held at the Bike Foundry.
10. The Bike Basics course is aimed at new cyclists.
11. Snacks are provided for participants on the maintenance training courses.
12. Members of the Tool Club have access to cycle reference books.
13. Most of the participants on the Cycling Training courses are beginners.
14. People can cancel their place on a training course one week before it begins and still get their money back.

SECTION 2

Read the text below and answer Questions 15-21.

Benefits for staff of Hamberton Hospital

Our attractive benefits package is one of the ways we acknowledge the contribution they all make in the provision of high quality patient care. Our package is extensive and varied.

As a Hamberton employee you’ll enjoy both National Health Service (NHS) and locally developed schemes, providing you with a range of benefits. These include:

Financial Benefits
• opportunity to contribute to the NHS Pension Scheme – highly regarded by the independent pensions and insurance sector
• Injury Benefits Scheme
• excellent occupational sick pay and maternity leave and pay entitlements
• loans to assist with the purchase of housing for employees in the health service

Work-Life Balance
Here at Hamberton we are committed to helping all employees balance their work and home life commitments. We believe by helping people make this balance we are able to recruit, retain and motivate the most valuable asset of the NHS – our employees. We are committed to making this balance work for all employees equally, not just parents.

Over 50% of our staff work part-time in a range of flexible working options, which include:

• job sharing
• term-time-only working
• part-time working
• individually-tailored working patterns

We also support employees further through our caring and special leave arrangements.

Health
• our own occupational health department, providing a totally confidential service open to all staff during normal working hours
• a round-the-clock free and confidential counselling service
• policies supporting phased returns to work after long illnesses or injuries

Other Benefits
On-site facilities include:
• excellent food provided in our restaurant
• ample parking
• retail outlets

NHS Discounts

All NHS employees can access the NHS Discounts scheme. This allows members of staff free access to a number of discounted products and services. For example, discounts are available at many high street shops and elsewhere, including savings on toys, utility bills, days out, and much more.

Red Guava

This is a further discount benefit, which is available to employees of Hamberton. Red Guava provides discounts on holidays, for example, and can save you money in many other ways too.

Questions 15-21
Complete the sentences below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 15-21 on your answer sheet.

15. The hospital provides benefits to show its recognition of the…………………………………………….. of staff to its work.
16. Financial benefits include pay for staff who are…………………………………or on maternity leave.
17……………………………….are available for staff who wish to buy a home.
18. Helping staff with their work-life balance is not restricted to……………………………….
19. The hospital has……………………………………that are designed to help staff return to work after a long absence.
20. The facilities on hospital premises include a large area for……………………………….
21. The cost of………………………………is reduced by using the Red Guava scheme.

Read the text on below page and answer Questions 22-27.

Performance-related pay

There are a number of reasons why your employer might introduce this type of pay scheme. They may:
• be keen to retain current staff
• want to compete for new talent
• be seeking a fairer way of distributing wages.

In order for performance-related schemes to work they should be based on clear, measurable targets agreed by both employer and employee. You will normally find out about these targets from your contract of employment and the performance appraisal meetings you have with your manager.

Short-term schemes
Short-term schemes usually offer bonus payments, or, depending on the type of work, commission on sales achieved. Payments vary and these schemes are normally used just to encourage staff to improve their own performance.

Long-term schemes
Long-term schemes offer rewards like share options, and can help to encourage loyalty to the organisation and its aims. Such schemes tend to be used as a way of retaining senior staff.

What to do if you have problems
If you don’t receive bonus or commission payments which you believe you are owed, check your contract of employment or staff handbook to see how your bonus is paid.
Ask your employer if you need more information.

If you think a mistake has been made, you should:
• speak to your employer to see if there has been a misunderstanding
• ask your employer to set out in writing how they have calculated your pay
• keep copies of any letters and notes of any meetings.

There are three ways that the law might cover a case of unpaid bonuses:
• breach of contract
• unlawful deductions from wages
• unlawful discrimination.

Deductions from wages / breach of contract
Any right to a bonus will normally be included in your contract of employment. It may not always be written down. It can be verbally agreed or understood to be there due to normal practice in your particular area of business.
Failure to pay a bonus or commission that you are entitled to could amount to an unlawful deduction of wages.

Discrimination
Your employer must not discriminate against particular groups of people – for example, by giving smaller bonuses to women. Ideally your employer should have some guidelines setting out the normal range of bonuses to give, and these must be followed without discriminating against any specific group.

Questions 22-27
Complete the notes below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 22-27 on your answer sheet.

Performance-related pay

One of the reasons for introducing performance-related pay is in order to (22)……………………………………………existing employees
Employer and employee should agree on some (23)…………………………………that can be measured
Short-term schemes: bonus or the payment of a (24)…………………………….related to sales
Long-term reward schemes: generally offered to employees at a (25)………………………….level
Details of bonus payments: may be included in a contract or a handbook for staff

If you think there has been a mistake with your pay:
• discuss the issue with your employer
• keep records of any relevant (26)…………………………………
It is illegal for employers to discriminate against any specific group, e.g. by giving less money to (27)…………………………….

SECTION 3 
Read the text on below pages and answer Questions 28-40.

Questions 28-34
The text on below page has seven sections, A-G.
Choose the correct heading for each section from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-viii, in boxes 28-34 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings
i Plans for more marine protected areas
ii A historical overview of one specific area
iii Why more has not been done to save marine creatures
iv What the press has missed
v Where biodiversity has been shown to help
vi Who is currently being blamed
vii A reason for some optimism
viii Various factors other than fishing

28 Section A
29 Section B
30 Section C
31 Section D
32 Section E
33 Section F
34 Section G

Marine Ecosystems

A
For some time now, the world’s oceans and the people who fish them have been a constant source of bad environmental news: cod is effectively an endangered species of fish in some places now; every year thousands of dolphins are injured by fishing vessels, huge tuna farms are ruining the Mediterranean Sea.

What is more, marine biologists recently warned that our seafood is in terminal decline. According to research published in Science last November, stocks of all the fish and shellfish that we currently eat will collapse before 2050. Or at least that’s how the media reported it.

B
However the scientist who led the study has said that the main conclusion of his research has been buried beneath the headlines. While the danger to our seafood supply is real enough, says Boris Worm, assistant professor of marine conservation biology at Dalhousie University, Canada, there is a more serious point: that the way in which we manage the oceans is not only threatening the survival of individual species, it’s upsetting the delicate balance of marine communities and thus causing the collapse of entire ecosystems. Research has shown that the number of ecosystems where all higher forms of life are extinct, so-called dead zones is increasing.

The point that many reports failed to highlight, says Worm, is that we have to revolutionise the way our marine resources are run, changing the focus from stocks and quotas to biodiversity and ecosystem protection. And to do that, we must change the way the debate about our marine resources is conducted in the public domain.

C
Around 7,500 years ago, shrinking glaciers and the resulting higher water levels led to the development of what’s called the Wadden Sea, a 13,500-square-kilometre area of the North Sea. During the first 5,000 years or so, the sea pulsated with life. There was a high level of biodiversity on the seabed too, and the salt marshes and mud flats on the coast supported millions of birds. This continued until around 2,000 years ago, when human pressure began to affect it. Research has shown that some of the larger creatures disappeared more than 500 years ago. And by the late
19th century, populations of most of the other mammals and fish were severely reduced, leading to the collapse of several traditional fisheries.

D
What’s interesting is that overfishing isn’t the main agent of the decline, as we might assume. It’s due to an ongoing combination of exploitation, habitat destruction and pollution. Coastal development, for example, destroys large areas of wetlands that support a range of species. Pollution fuels a process known as eutrophication, which kills certain seagrasses. Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus contained in human and industrial waste promote the growth of tiny phytoplankton. This over-enrichment of the sea can ultimately lead to the collapse of the entire system through oxygen starvation.

Most marine ecosystems have an in-built capacity to deal with a certain amount of pollution because shellfish can absorb phytoplankton. But in many cases, these have been largely removed by fishing, so the effect of any nutrient-rich pollutants entering the system is increased. In a healthy system, coastal wetlands also act as filters, so their destruction causes even more pollution. These processes have been fairly well understood for a number of years.

E
What the Science paper has demonstrated, however, is that the decline in the health of ecosystems is greater where the number of different species is low. The population of marbled rock cod around the South Atlantic island of South Georgia, for example, still hasn’t recovered after the fishing industry caused its collapse during the 1970s. By contrast, North Sea cod has withstood very heavy fishing for hundreds of years, says Worm, and although it has declined substantially, it hasn’t yet collapsed completely. Worm believes that, ‘to have a greater number of species makes an ecosystem more robust’. His theory is backed up by evidence from experiments into how ecosystems react to change.

F
And some positive news came from the study. Worm and his colleagues were able to show that it’s possible to reverse such damage as long as there are enough species. A survey of 44 protected areas revealed increases in biodiversity and fish catches close to the reserves. Worm says, ‘We should be focusing our attention on protecting all of our marine resources at the ecosystem level, and managing levels of fishing, pollution and habitat disturbance to ensure that crucial services that maintain the health of the ecosystem continue to function.’ To anyone who knows anything about ecology, it would appear that Worm is just stating the obvious. And many protected areas on land are now managed in this way.

G
However, there has long been a tendency to view our oceans as a limitless resource, combined with a widespread failure to make an emotional connection with most marine wildlife. True, we have created a small number of marine protected areas. ‘We seem to have understood the value of protecting ecosystems in areas such as the Australian Great Barrier Reef that we consider to be particularly beautiful/ says John Shepherd, Professor of Marine Sciences at Southampton University in the UK. ‘Human nature will always draw us towards those species or habitats that are more aesthetically pleasing. That’s why there will always be support for protecting pandas and very little for worms, even though nematodes play a vital role in maintaining the health of an ecosystem.’

Questions 35-37

Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 35-37 on your answer sheet.

35 Boris Worm’s main concern is that

A marine ecosystems will completely break down.
B insufficient attention is being paid to fish numbers.
C there will no longer be enough seafood for people to eat.
D politicians will be unwilling to discuss marine resources.

36 What point does John Shepherd make?

A Marine conservation areas are not high on the list of visitor attractions.
B People know very little about how different species actually live.
C The public are much less likely to help unattractive creatures.
D The marine environment was better understood in the past.

37 Which of the following best summarises the text as a whole?
A Scientists disagree about the state of the world’s oceans.
B A radical review of marine resource management is needed.
C The fishing industry is mainly responsible for today’s problems.
D The natural systems of our seas will not be able to repair themselves.

Questions 38-40
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 38-40 on your answer sheet.

The Wadden Sea

The Wadden Sea was created when the sea rose as a consequence of 38……………slowly contracting. The waters were full of different species of marine creatures, and there were large numbers of 39……………living on the wetlands along the shore. This continued until species began to decline 2,000 years ago. Overfishing was partly responsible for the changing circumstances, and so was pollution. At the same time there has been an increase in some nutrients in the Wadden Sea which can also destroy marine creatures and vegetation by depriving them of 40…………………which is essential for their survival.